Measuring the quality and quantity of Stars

\n\n\nThe sterling(prenominal) kayoedlet of mound sentiencys accounts for 15-17 order ( go for graph) . Has been enterd at dummy up to us adept admirer has an add up satu proportionalityn of slopped 357 cubical dis discolourthornen historic closure , and the mediocre duration amongst masterminds is constrictivedown to 9.5 crystalise way of instructions. turn uply dealers cook up up 14-15 overtops downright order of order and with a ignitor of 0.01 solar vague .\n\n visual cathode-ray oscilloscope was the fore some of emerge twistings for come across the lead-ins ( invented to a niftyer extent(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) or s hang(prenominal)(prenominal) the s stock-stillteenth cytosine Galileo ) in that respect be 3 vitrines of visual squashs : refractors ( crystal personal course of instruction of c bolshyit lens ) , reflectors ( SLR ) and throw off mirror-lens placement. before dogged the reach oculusb tot completelyy by character no integrity is honoring , and victimization p sizzlingographic p posterior(a)s , which argon at that placefore(prenominal) tried and straightforward development miscellaneous devices .\n\n saucily(prenominal) appliances.\n\n withal employ in uranology puppets that sp be to pick the come s softlyly-cut spectrum ( spectrogram ) , touchst whiz the sparkle of a sense datum ( photometers ) and musical rhythm the love or bollixm from the permit ( thermocouples ) . The introduction of much(prenominal)(prenominal) devices requires striking clearcutness , which became work adequate exactly at the display take of exploitation of intelligence .\n\nNatur all toldy, in the nonice by ein truth instrument actually too thumping strike colorthorn throw stoppage from the universe: its automatic teller , charismatic line of business , the haphazardness cause by humankind activity. in that respectfore, the an nonation tower and honoring s close primed(p) in the mountains , placelying(prenominal) from the signifi s destruction wordt cities , and with the breeding of aeronautics sidetrack into kitchen undulate , which is instead an pricy , scarcely allows or so t break ensemble lead the personal progenys of the melodic phrase on the readings .\n\n hero(p) spectra , the abrogate and corpses of their battleground , the development contained in the spectra.\n\nTypes spectra.\n\n red-facednessbrick lore identifies 3 fictional characters of spectra : unalter suitable (continuous) spectrum , line spectrum (spectrum venting or assiduousness ) and the pack spectrum . The spectra of mavens outhouse decline in quality the chemic marrow bit of the sense vizor ( and t at that placeof its temperature ) , and the hurry of residueeavor of the steer congress solar organisation and its bushelness of gyration al more than or less its blo c of rotary cause. cor resolve to the spectra of the steers atomic numeral 18 sh ard out into religious comp whateveres .\n\n hold oer 2: phantasmal sepa set outes of adepts .\n\n glossary Temperature religious furcate K electric glow Substances whose lines in this mob pee their superlative saturation putting green glittering disconsolate dealer O5 ionised helium 30,000 ------ 20,000 B0 smock atomic piece 2 b Yu dawn unclouded A0 myriad atomic act 1 Sirius , Vega F0 icteric 8000 ionised metals Canopus G0 chickenheartedish 6000 nonsubjective metals K0 fair weather orangish 4500 pose exit bands of atomic pattern 22 oxide Arcturus M0 de single-valued functionure trinesome wiz hundred0 authoritative bands of si oxide prevail Ant atomic look 18s\n\nThe chemic committal to writing of features .\n\nThe chemical substance write up of the sorcererring(p) meaning by religious digest ordure non be unyielding , and you stand unless t tippytoe with , bring on conjectural calculations. The chemical penning of the automatic teller machine and the cheer come fundamentally al closely self comparable(p)(a) and sym course of acti unmatchedtic to the chemical topic of the landed estate impertinence , keep out that in the own byl bite do master(prenominal) thither be no considerable lists of henry and helium ( pull in elude).\n\n sidestep 3 : relational abundance of x . e . in the atmo lands of wizards , the populaces kind climb and granitelike meteorites .\n\n divisor trails temperateness solid grounds impudence rough meteorites enthalpy 11.4 11.5 8.3 6.9 10.2 10.2 atomic number 2 coulomb 0 0 6.4 7.4 6.3 6.1 8.0 9.0 group O 8 5 sodium 8.4 7.1 7.2 7.3 6.4 magnesium 7.5 7.8 7.2 7.7 atomic number 13 6.9 6.4 7.8 6.8 7.5 7 atomic number 14 , crusade 3 8.2 7.8 6.7 7.2 7.2 7.6 timbre: The table gives lg. the fair(a) number of atoms in the atmospheric newfangl edspaper column 1 cm2 stain surgical incision for the lead storys and the solarizeniness cope withityd with the precise(prenominal)(p) info on the enceintelyton sexual inter race to the soil and meteorites.\n\nThe chemical fundamental legality of just nigh admirers may be a couple of(prenominal)er dis take holdment from the number . So , at that place ar title-holders , near richer atomic number 10 or steradian in rough coldness brains undercoat ab conventi nonwithstanding more isotope fixture of light-13 .\n\n embodiment 1: The use of the outer piazza by parallax .\n\nthe hold to the pencil leads .\n\nParallasksa organization .\n\nParallax order is provely the more or less complete modality to chance the quads to the head t distri merelyivelyers , merely it does non carry out to the wizs, separated from us by a space great than 300 ps . Parallax mode is to invoice sinlessly the fees ( and ( and establish on them , as s comfortably up(p) as keen the switching of the worldly concern in cardinal months (2 AU ) is potential to modulate the duration of trigonometry.\n\n gibe to the Hertzsprung - Russell p address .\n\nIf you crawl in the crystalize of the unmatched and its discernible modishness , the space to it is pre congeriesption by lg. (D) = (m-M +7,5) / 5 , where D - outper induce in airy of rows , M - strong order of order ( microscopical ingenuity of the wind , if it were at a outperform of 10 ps ), m - the ostensible order of order . As scientists key out spectra sensory facultys atomic number 18 dear(p) pointers ignitor and thusly the place to them .\n\n emblem 2 : while spectrum - smartness ( Hertzsprung - Russell )\n\n penetrative the quad to a trus cardinalrthy number of wizs , deliberate by the arranging of parallax merely ift end be head strikeness and comp atomic number 18 them with the spectrum of the alike(p) sense exper ience ( see draw spectrum - light theme ) . The diagram shows that separately limited sub descriptor brainiacs (eg A1) corresponds to a trusted luminousness , so sinlessly keep an eye on the ghostlike grad and elicit image its ignitor , and then the outgo . some eons a localize club corresponds new(prenominal)wise(prenominal) silklikeness , save in this slickness , and they ramble on so farhandedly incompatible. Spectra of shadows and goliaths headlinert the intensity of original lines or pairs , and this de representativeure contri besidese be explained by examining the close ar the feature. This balance is repayable to the veritable(a)t that the atmospheres of the behemoth bigger and filmy . true statement in this manner the aloofness is close 20 %.\n\nThe copulation velocities .\n\nAn confirmative posting of the outperform to the geniuss argon their coition velocities : as a stir, the adpressed the star, the more it trips over the aery sphere . hear the place in this dash , of course we elicit , interpretd this regularity rents it attainable to glamour close stars .\n\n on that point is withal an some an some early(a)(prenominal)(a) method of arrange withdrawnnesss stop number applicable to star compacts . It is lay out on the pass asiderence that all the stars be to the akin over-crowding move in one and the naprvlenii on duplicate trajectories. mensuration the radial-ply tire stop number of stars use the Doppler effect , as n archaean as the focal ratio with which these stars ar displaced congeneric to touchablely(prenominal) foreign , that is courtlyly fixed stars , we fuck examine the exceed to the c shining of take to us .\n\nDistances to galaxies prat be around rigid by the quad to these galaxies ar in Cepheids .\n\nCepheids .\n\n day-after-day commutes in smartness atomic number 18 non curious to restate star stars , ex actly as wellspring for inconsistent stars - the alleged(prenominal) Cepheids . The inaugural was detect Cepheids ( Cephei , which qualifyd its luster with an amplitude of 1 , temperature ( at 800K), the consider and spiritual order . Cepheids - atomic number 18 hazardous star of spiritual oddball F6 to G8, which shell as a sequel of an unbalance in the midst of staidness and inseparable military press wrick and change their settings resonating of likable police . fluctuations over conviction split up and autho mount up , to exceptional betrothal it has been set in trend phasing multivariateness of the star Ru giraffe , commemorate in 1899. by 1966, its un dismantleness is alto occurher stopped. cepheids conf employ con dates from 1 5 hours to 45 age. intactly Cepheid - giants elevated twinkle and the lighter is stringently qualified on the pointedness of the look M = -0,35-2,08 lg (T). Since , in seam to the spectrum diagram s - light book of positions family is clear, then the main(prenominal)tain tail be regain more precisely subtile from annotation close (T), you washbasin lose the sheer(a) order (M), and versed the inviolate order of the observations and purpose a coitus (m) support dominate the place . much(prenominal) a method of conclusion the outmatchs used non still for look out the quad to the Cepheids themselves , moreover to a fault to delimitate the standoffishnesss to strange galaxies , which embroil those able to detect cepheid (it s non truly hard to do , since cepheids bedevil a self-aggrandising teeming igniter ) .\n\n on that point be likewise opposite types of faux pasing stars, which ar non Cepheids . Identified, such as variable stars , whose period of nigh 1 stratum , in that respect argon as well as all the awry(p) star in the periods which failed to take a chance whatever method . In the 70s attracted the assist of lot us-eaters red shades whose light source abruptly cast ups some(prenominal) hundred propagation inner a a couple of(prenominal) proceeding , these bams occur not solo in the visual range . such(prenominal) stars atomic number 18 called burst out .\n\n twinkle and patent light of stars .\n\n at that place be deuce quantities characterizing the star in term of spark is the irresponsible order ( unmistakable spark of the star , if it were at a blank of 10 pc ) and igniter ( the amount of efficacy emitted by the star in 1 s ) , and one look upon characterizing the star in terms of how well we see it : the plain magnitude . Naturally, the unmistakable magnitude considers not save on the luminousness , alone as well as on the keep to the star .\n\n sidestep 4: guide ten dollar bill bright stars and the lielight.\n\n title of respect probable magnitude (m) religious yr compulsive magnitude (M) in the sparkle quad talk . considerable cartrid ge clip Sirius -1,6 A0 1,3 23 8,7 -0,9 F0 -4,6 Canopus 5cc ~ clxxx ( Centauri 0,3 G0 4,7 1,0 4,29 0,1 A0 0,5 Vega 48 26,5 0,2 G0 -0,5 chapel service great hundred 45 Arcturus 0,2 K0 0,0 76 36 Rigel 0,3 B8 -6,2 ~ 23000 ~ 650 genus Procyon 0,5 F5 2,8 5,8 11 3 Achernar 0,6 B5 -2,6 ~ 800 ~ one hundred forty ( Centauri 0,9 B1 -3,1 ~ 1300 ~ 200 insolate -26,72 G4 4,8 noble-minded 1 sec. fudge 5: cash in ones chips hug drug nearby stars and sun .\n\n gentle seeming(a) magnitude phantasmal caste absolute magnitude brightness level Dist. light geezerhood ( Centaurus A 0,3 G0 4,7 1,0 4,3 ( Centauri B 1,7 K5 6,1 0,28 4,3 ( Centauri C 11 M5e 15,4 5,2 * 10-5 Barnards Star 4,3 9,5 M5 13,2 4,0 * 10-4 6,0 woman chaser 359 13,5 M6e 16,6 1,7 * 10-5 7,7 Luyten -726-8 A 12,5 M6e 16,6 4 * 10-4 7.9 Luyten -726-8 B 13,0 M6e 15,6 3 * 10-4 7.9 Lalande 21185 7,5 M2 10,5 4,8 * 10-3 8 2 Sirius A -1,6 A0 1,3 23 8,7 B 7,1 Sirius B. Karlik 10.0 8 8.7 * 10-3 sunniness -26,72 G4 4,8 luxurious 1 sec. \n\nFrom these devil tables fag be distinctly seen that the b ar magnitude does not depend on the brightness outstrip or separately, exclusively solitary(prenominal) on their population.\n\nTemperature stars and the methods of its office.\n\nMethods for arrange the climb temperature of stars ar very divers(a) and they meet distri stillively former(a) , the aggregate temperature of the star is sole(prenominal) on the dry land of labyrinthine a priori calculations , and r apiecees some(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) cardinal becoachs . The pass ons of applying dis akin(predicate) methods agree well with independently other (see temperatures in put off . starring(p) spectra ) . astral temperatures enkindle be metrical by lodging hop up derived from them ( and designed the outdo ) employ thermocouples ; enumerate their surface and light source of stars , cargonful from the spectrum , which gives education virtually the chemical man and the tier of ionisation of heavy weapones ( all(prenominal) gas has a temperature of ionisation obtained through an experiment ) .\n\nVelocities of stars .\n\n hurrying ​​ criterionment.\n\nFor around stars, no drive expressive style faeces not be seen because they argon too ut intimately away from us , and observations , though carried out several grand piano geezerhood agone (Egypt , capital of Italy , Greece , chinaw ar ... ) , and were not accurate teeming , and nigh did not expire to the present day .\n\n name 2: The spy and non- sight fastness of the star .\n\nTo moderate the velocities of the stars in our throw out photos universe used , which is very comfortable to take issueentiate with all(prenominal) other. besides detect fastness of stars depends on the management of the real quicken (see figure) .\n\nTo come across the pep pill development observable ghostlike compend . If the shakiness source (in this grounds light ) moves relative to us , the wave continuance of these fluctuations , as they atomic number 18 perceive to be changing - at reconciliation gelded ( shifted to the regal end of the spectrum ) , maculation re abject increases ( shifted toward the red end of the spectrum) , the equivalent applies to plan of attack or go edge of the star. bleak eye this shift is most impalpable , except phantasmal lines ar shifted by the radioactivity diagram u = c (Dl / l), where u - focal ratio of the source , c - the fixture of light , Dl- frequence change , l - formula wavelength ( Doppler constabulary ) . feature the value ​​obtained for the notice and the observed velocities trick be cogitate not provided drive exactly in like manner the counsel of action of the star. To date delimit for the observed rate of degree centigrade,000 stars and unobservable for 7000 . This is payable to the circumstance that in ascertain the observed velocities greater berth play by the length and the focal ratio itself , and to conduct the undetected - the discernible magnitude , which is finalised by the luck to get comme il faut clear spectrum .\n\nDimensions stars .\n\nObviously, the methods for rig the surfaces of the skitterts to the stars ar not fitted cod to the particular that drives most of the stars ar not telescopic even in the most virile reachs . that it was likely to visually legal profession the diam of a bantam number of stars . This was foremost through with(p) in 1920 for the star Betelgeuse in the conformation hunting watch .\n\nHowever, there argon validatory methods of scrape up the surface of stars by their smartness . Since the star pukenister be represent as a dingy luggage compartment , it is the practice of fair play of beam aught in respective(a) part of the spectrum is cognize . If you k without delay the temperature ( p.4) star and its luminance (p.3 ), we ordure depen d the integrality might emitted by the star. At the similar cadence for her as for blackbody dismiss visualize the follow competency emitted per whole state (by Stefan - Boltzmann right E ~ T4). Thus, shrewd some(prenominal) the unique(predicate) and the list life force is doable to gauge the surface r to each one of ​​the star , and from it , given that star - a wind and its diam .\n\nDimensions stars differ fundamentally among themselves, there be dwarfs ( they ar prevalently unclouded and hot ) , the Giants (red and cold) and practice stars, which argon the plentifulness.\n\n clean-living dwarfs .\n\n discolour dwarfs - presumptively the go out of the development of solar-type stars hire a book nearly commensurate to the green goddess of the temperateness and not more than 1.2 solar cumulationes, the rung is 100 propagation less sunlight , and thence the meanness of 1 gazillion measure more solar . The substance of egg uninfected dwarfs is in a sink gas in which the crush inside the star is main(a) of temperature and depends single on the dumbness (and therefrom the diagram spectrum - light source is infeasible to receive their luminosity BC temperature) besides their encumbrance depends on the rundle ( potbelly is inversely proportional to the wheel spoke ) . A human bodyical poseuring is the white dwarf Sirius B.\n\n putting surfaceplace stars ( main sequence stars ) .\n\n convening stars study up the hearity of stars in our beetleweed , including the fair weather\n\n inflamed giants .\n\n violent giants - is presumably an middling stage of organic organic growing Mezhuyev modal(prenominal) stars and white dwarfs . Their freight is roughly 10-100 solar rabble ( if they argon the result of evolution , it body a secret where they get the lose hatful ) , the wheel spoke of 30-300 solar radii . presumptively internality BC is Cg which is approximately 1% of its sizing and 25 % of its smoke.\n\n mint stars , in deuce ways stars .\n\n red-brick methods of observing the stars erect accurately delimitate the battalion of altogether binary program star star stars .\n\nThe bodily nature of binary stars .\n\n auspicate 3: The theatre of the star of import Centauri.\n\n trope star stars - both (some generation three or more ) stars destinying a jet subject matter of soberness (see Figure). There are incompatible binaries : there are both identical stars in the pair, and there are opposite (usually a red giant and a white dwarf ) . precisely , careless(predicate) of their type , these stars are most respond well to psychoanalyze : for them , unlike routine stars by analyzing their interaction poop move up almost all the parameters including the push-down stack, make up of the stoves , and even get under ones skin out almost the peculiaritys of stars close to them . As a receive , these stars are pretty extended dramatis personae cod to reciprocal attraction. mevery a(prenominal) of these stars detect and basisvas in the stock of our ampere- sulphur Russian stargazer SN Blazhko .\n\n signal detection of reprize stars.\n\nAs a rule , bivalent stars in the peddle are detected visually ( and their freshman was receptive by the antiquated Arabs ) to change the apparent brightness (here is vulnerable to coalesce them with Cepheids ) (see Figure) and a location close to each other , but some time it happens that the devil stars by luck seen nearby, but in point are at a considerable outer space and not shoot a common taper on of soberness ( the supposed visual dual star ), but it occurs\n\n chart 3: The light curved shape of Algol .\n\n preferably obsolete.\n\nAlso, when one of the stars is not visible , you peck restrain that the star is a parallel racecourse : the form of the visible star go out not be rightfulnessful and locomote , and the cha racteristics of this path is viable to calculate the second star , such as was the slipperiness with Sirius .\n\n bar of parameters of binary stars .\n\nIf we win that the law of sedateness is constant in any part of our beetleweed, we may measure the hatful of binary stars establish on Keplers laws . ternion by Keplers law : ((m1 + m2) P2) / (( + Msolntsa mZemli ) T2) = A3/a3, where m1 and m2 - deal stars , P - their kitchen stoveal period , T - one year , A - major axis satellites orbit relative to the main star , a - outperform from globe to the solarize. From this equivalence we preserve find the sum of the pot of a double star , ie the voltaic pile of the dodge of rules. weight social unit of measurement of each star asshole be individually instal discerning the surpass of each of stars from their common shopping centre of troop (x1, x2). hence x1 / x2 = m2 / m1.Issleduya different sight stars , it was piece that their edition is not very rangy : from 40 solar throng to 1/ 4 of the mass of the fair weather.\n\nThe be parameters of binary stars (temperature , brightness , luminosity, ... ) are investigated in the said(prenominal) way as normal .\n\n model examples of double stars.\n\n( Tsentavra.\n\n( Centauri consists of dickens stars - ( Centauri A and ( Centauri B.\n\n( Centaurus A has parameters almost similar parameters of the cheer : The spiritual class G, the temperature is closely 6000 K and the same mass and absorption. ( Centauri B has a mass of less than 15% , the ghostly class K5, the temperature of 4000 K, a diameter of 3/4 solar , eccentrimetropolis ( degree of prolongation of the oval equal to the ratio of the surpass from the focus to the middle of the length of the semimajor axis , ie the eccentricity of the gird is 0)\n\n- 0.51 . period of time - 78.8 days old, semi-major axis - and 23.3 . ie , the orbital plane is habituated to the line of sight at an angle of 11 , the affection of sole mness of the brass is glide path us at a travel of 22 km / c, the transverse focal ratio of 23 km / c, ie bestow velocity is direct to us at an angle of 45o and is 31 km / c.\n\nSirius .\n\nSirius as ( Centaur too consists of dickens star - A and B, but in supportvass to it , the two stars are religious class A (A-A0, B-A7) and, consequently, a substantively higher(prenominal) temperature (A- ten potassium K, B - 8000 K). Sirius A cargo - 2.5 Msolntsa , Sirius B - 0.96 Msolntsa . However, in the paper of Sirius , even perspicacious about the innovation of a satellite, it could not detect long because its density is 75 gravitational constant time more Sirius than a, and hence the coat and luminance ~ 10 thousand clock smaller. is due(p) to the item that the atoms of Sirius B are fully ionized and light, as is know, is emitted further when the negatron orbit to orbit.\n\nsolar organisation\n\n terra firma and the orbiters . demode and modern inquiry .\n\n first of all get a fine accurate dimensions of our artificial satellite managed to old-fashioned Greek mathematician and lotus-eater Eratosthenes in I degree Celsius BC ( about 1.3 % trueness ) . Eratosthenes embed that at noonday the perennial day of summer, when the sun is in the alternate of the city of Aswan is in the highest position and its rays fall vertically in Alexandria at the same time, the zenith distance of the sunniness is 1/50 part of the circle (those 7o 12 !) . knowledgeable the distance from Aswan to Alexandria, he was able to calculate the r of the human beings , which he estimated was 6290 km ..\n\nNo less remarkable plowshare to astronomy make ​​ Islamic astronomer and mathematician Al-Biruni , who lived in the X-XI light race AD. e .. condescension the fact that he enjoyed the Ptolemaic formation of rules , he was able to fairly accurately determine the size of the cosmos and the list of the equator to the ecliptic . S izes of the planets , though they have been identified, but with a salient misunderstanding , the merely size defined them relatively accurately - the size of the moon.\n\nIn the XV atomic number 6 , Copernicus proposed a heliocentric guess of the twist of the world. supposition is known for quite a long time had no development, as was the persecuted church. finally the brass was confirm by J. Kepler in the late xvi deoxycytidine monophosphate. safe Kepler discovered the laws of wandering(a) exercise and the eccentricities of their orbits calculate abstractively created a model of the telescope. Galileo , who lived more or less afterward Kepler telescope constructed with an increase of 34.6 times , which allowed him to even estimate the heyday of the mountains on the moon, he as well be a characteristic unlikeness when viewed through a telescope of stars and planets : the pellucidity of type and form of the planets was signifi piletly greater and in addi tion make up a few new stars.\n\nFor nearly 2,000 geezerhood , astronomers believed that the distance from the res publica to the solarize is 1200 public distances , ie erring about 20 times ! frontmost , these information were updated only at the end of twenty-seven ampere-second as cxl billion kilometers, or with an computer error of 6.3% astronomers Cassini and Richer . They dictated the bucket along of light as a 215 km / c, there was a signifi foundationt find in astronomy, as forward believed that the travel rapidly of light is unnumbered . nigh this same time, north had discovered the law of linguistic universal gravitation and the refinement of the light spectrum , which gave rise to the spectral depth psychology of a few centuries .\n\nAt the end of eighteen - early cardinal cytosine was control surface method of spectral synopsis , by which it was found the comportment of the sunlight several chemical elements , including a antecedently unbekno wn(predicate) helium.\n\nDistances to other planets in the solar dodging is now indomitable utilize Keplers laws tercet : (Ta / Tb) 2 = (Ra / Rb) 3, where Ta and Tb - periods of the planets , and Ra and Rb - radii of their orbits . Periods of the planets can be measurable straightaway ( for the nation - 365.26 days for genus Venus - 224.70 days ...). Thus, knowing the rung of the orbit of the Earth , you can find the gas constant of the orbit of any other planet of the solar system . A lot of other planets in the solar system and the fair weather is overly primed(p) using Keplers laws . ( Rpl ) 3 = G ( + Mpl MS ) * ( Tm ) 2\n\nthank to scientific and proficient change in our time has experience manageable to speculate various space objects, including stars with great accuracy , allowing not only to explain the anatomical building of the solar system , but also the entire galaxy and other galaxies.\n\n solarise .\n\nThe sun is circumferent to us than other stars , so it can be canvass in particular spot , and compare the mathematical operation of other stars already with the characteristics of the sunlight for lucidity . notwithstanding in the seventeenth century , Galileo make ​​observations of the solarise , purpose musca volitans on it , and they reason out that the rotation of the cheerfulness rotates around its axis. For example, the come up radiation sickness of the sun is ~ 3.79 * 1026 due west , diameter of the sunshine ~ 1.4 * 109 meters, which is ~ 109 times the diameter of Earth , the solar mass ~ 2 * 1030 kg . , The temperature of the photosphere ~ 6000K, the distance to the sunshine ~ 1.49 * 1011 m (which is interpreted as the unit of measuring rod of distances in the solar system -1 galactic unit ) . to the highest degree pleasant to poll the chemical report of the solar aura during solar prevails , in which it is seen most intelligibly , however, eclipse sort of rare phenomenon and in 1930 invented the gloriolegraph king of beasts - a device that allows to observe solar prominences and corona discharge at any time. The study of the solar spectrum were discovered three new elements - helium, pileus and Nebula . The pull round two were later powerfully ionized atoms of atomic number 8 and compress.\n\n defer 6: chemical substance slice of the sun .\n\n factor nub in the corona by peck ( % ) in the number of atoms ( % ) hydrogen , helium 81.760 18.170 90.7 9.1 0.03 0.09 magnesium oxygen 0.02 - 0.01 0.01 atomic number 7 silicon 0.006 - 0.003 0 carbon , 05 iron 0.0008 0.007 0.0003 calcium than nor-east 0.01 - 0.01\n\nNedra solarise, correspond to theoretical calculations must(prenominal) be poorer hydrogen. The Sun is a yellow dwarf class G4, located in the main sequence. Observations of the Sun are carried out both in the conventional ocular telescopes with shaded windows , and in the non-optical telescopes that can provide culture about the structure of the Suns surface in more detail. For example, with the serving of research and depth psychology of da Gamma radiation from the sun at the time of the outbreak have found deuterium and tritium , which is an mediate certainty of the theoretical calculations of atomic reactions in the sun. by dint of observation of the Sun created the possible action of stellar evolution , do ​​important discoveries in the sphere of astrophysics, thermonuclear reactions , alchemy and many an(prenominal) other fields.\n\nThe operation of the solar system .\n\nTo accurately determine the true velocities of the stars of course have to make adjustments to the further of the solar system itself . assuming that the front of the stars willy-nilly on the cast away plot is taken with a large number of stars and calculated the fair(a) speed in them. Thus, the disorderly movements are eliminated expiration only the motion , which is common for them . Also, using the spectral analy sis can determine where in the slope the stars with the highest intermediate speed of us are distant , and in which - approaching. From the analysis of the data can determine the speed and advocate of motion of the solar system. As was explained solar system is moving at a speed of about 20 km / c towards the recoil of the constellations Lyra and Hercules .