How Important Are Ethics and Social Responsibility?

The search register for this journal is available at http//www. mcbup. com/ research_registers The received issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http//www. emerald-library. com/ft How central be honourable motive and loving state? A multinational break down of merchandising victors Anusorn Singhapakdi and Kiran Karande College of credit line and Public Administration, Old pattern University, Virginia, the States How master(prenominal) be religion? 133Received September 1998 rewrite March 1999 June 1999 September 1999 College of Administrative Sciences, Kuwait University, Safat, Kuwait, and School of business organisation Administration, University of Mississippi, the States Keywords global merchandising, Ethics, Social indebtedness, National cultures, Consumer behaviour Abstr human doingion States that in the inclose era of global market, as to a great uttermost companies enter supranational markets, respectable problems be possible to increase.As companies and their man jump onrs deal with their counterparts in polar countries, at that place is a need to experience the latters honourable decision- qualification processes. Divergence in estimable behavior and attitudes of marketing professionals crosswise cultures rear end be explained by, among variant variables, differences in perceptions deferenceing the impressiveness of respectable motive and friendly righteousness in achieving organisational military strength. This write up investigates the variation in those perceptions among marketing professionals from Australia, Malaysia, siemens Africa, and the regular army.The variation is explained by soil differences ( ethnic differences, differences in the scotch surroundings, and differences in impartialityful/ policy- devising environment), organisational estimable climate, and selected demographic characteristics of the marketer (gender and shape up). C. P. Rao Scott J. Vitell Introd uction The remove of object lesson philosophy has become increasingly crucial with global job expansion, because of an increase in honourable and complaisant office concerns that feargons face in diametric soil environments. in that respect make ups, however, a wide divergence in the take aim of grandness draw toge at that placed to these devil issues in different countries (Czinkota and Ronkainen, 1998). More all(a) over, vast differences exist from untaught to country in the scotch development, heathenish standards, wakeless/ semi policy- make systems, and abstractizeations regarding blood birth (Wotruba, 1997). In addition, at that place is great divergence in the enforcement of policies (Mittelstaedt and Mittelstaedt, 1997). The authors would like to give thanks Mohd.Rashid Ahmed, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Malaysia Nicola Higgs-Kleyn, University of the Witwatersrand, southeast Africa and Muris Cicic, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia for th eir assistance in the info collection for this story. The authors would in addition like to thank Janet Marta for her comments on the earlier versions of the manuscript. European diary of trade, Vol. 35 no(prenominal) 1/2, 2001, pp. 133-152. MCB University Press, 0309-0566 European daybook of Marketing 35,1/2 134In the job virtuouss literature, honourable variations among marketers/ managers from different nations ar documented in umteen falsifiable studies on divers(a) types of honorable issues (e. g. Arm robust et al. , 1990 Graham, 1985 Becker and Fritzsche, 1987). Variation in morals across cultures was evidenced in a cross-national line of subscriber line of industrial salespeople by Dubinsky et al. (1991) where near signifi pilet differences in respectable perceptions were set up among marketing managers from Japan, Korea, and the the States. A film by Singhapakdi et al. 1994) in any case revealed that Ameri brook and Thai marketers differ on discorda nt components of their respectable decision-making process. However, global researchers consecrate non investigated differences in the terminus to which marketers from different countries bank that morals and loving indebtedness be all- alpha(prenominal) for organisational military strength. An unmarriedistics perception astir(predicate) whether honorable motive and favorable responsibility contri bute to organisational lastingness is plausibly to be a critical antecedent of whether he/she withal groks an honourable problem in a wedded stake (Singhapakdi et al. 1995). This is a pragmatic view ground on an argument that managers mustiness depression descry morals and fond responsibility to be rattling to organisational posture onward their behaviors exit become to a great extent than honourable and reflect great mixer responsibility. This view is consonant with Hunt and Vitells (1986) portraying of honorable judgment as including a teleologic al evaluation, when an case-by-case evaluates option actions by weighing the comprehend probability and desirability of consequences.Essentially, a managers choice of behavior in a situation that has problematic estimable fill go forth be base on his/her perception of the likelihood that the actions testament operate about a desired outcome. This view is also consistent with Jones (1991) issue-contingent perplex where it is postulated that the probability of effect which is defined as the probability that the act in question will actually take place and the act in question will actually cause the harm (benefit) (Jones, 1991, p. 75) will affect an individuals good decision making. Intuitively, honourable motive and affectionate responsibility should have a positive impact on the conquest of an administration, because consumers make ethical judgments that atomic number 18 likely to influence their purchases. As Laczniak and Murphy (1993, p. 5) put it Consumers over t ime will normally recognize the organizations that attempt to be antiphonal to various ethical and cordial cistrons in the marketplace.Accordingly, it is vital for marketers to inembodied ethical and friendly considerations in their work. Thus, the aim of this case is to investigate whether marketers from Australia, Malaysia, South Africa, and the ground forces differ in the extent to which they believe that ethical and complaisantly accountable practices are important in relation to various aspects of organisational military capability such as quality, colloquy, profits, agonisticness, survival, efficiency, and stakeholder ecstasy.Based on past literature that emphasizes cultural factors, corporal culture, and individual characteristics (e. g. Hunt and Vitell, 1986 Ferrell and Gresham, 1985), the cross-cultural variation in marketers discriminated immensity of ethical motive and mixer responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness is explained by countr y differences (including cultural differences and differences in the economic environment), organizational ethical climate, and selected demographic characteristics of individual marketers.The iv countries included were judged appropriate because they are geographically separated and exhibit differences in ground of Hofstedes (1980) atomic number 23 cultural dimensions and the level of economic development, which are utilise to support the hypothesis about country differences.Theoretical launchation and hypotheses In this section it is proposed that the variations in the sensed brilliance of ethical motive and well-disposed responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness is explained by country differences (including cultural differences and differences in the economic environment), organizational ethical climate, and individual characteristics of gender and age. Figure 1 summarizes the proposed example. Country differences Cultural differences. Hofstede (19 80) and Hofstede and Bond (1988) proposed a typology for classifying cultures base on five dimensions (1) individualism (2) uncertainty avoidanceHow important are morality? 135 Figure 1. Theoretical framework European journal of Marketing 35,1/2 136 (3) causation distance (4) masculinity and (5) Confucian desirableness. It is hypothesized that these cultural dimensions contribute to differences in the perceive importance of morals and social responsibility. For example, marketers in collectivistic countries (such as Malaysia) would be evaluate to be much than loyal to their organizations because of greater dependence (Hofstede, 1983), and therefore, implicated for their organizations well-being when making decisions that elicit organizational effectiveness.Consequently, collectivistic cultures would affix to a greater extent importance to achieving superior organizational execution than to ethics and socially responsibility. Masculine societies encourage individuals to be driven and competitive, and to strive for material success (Hofstede, 1980), which whitethorn tempt marketers from countries ranking racy on masculinity to achieve greater efficiency, at all costs. Therefore, they would bring together less importance to ethics and social responsibility than to efficiency, competitiveness, and long-term survival.Individuals from cultures with heights power distance (such as Malaysia) usually accept the inequality of power, perceive differences surrounded by superiors and subordinates, are reluctant to disagree with superiors and believe that superiors are empower to privileges (Hofstede, 1983). Consequently, marketers from high power distance countries are likely to perceive a need to minimize disagreement with superiors and satisfy superiors through with(predicate) repaird consummation. In separate(a) words, organizational performance is likely to be relatively more than important to them relative to the extent to which a decision is ethical and socially answerable.The risk-taking orientation of marketers from low uncertainty avoiding countries would lead them to believe that it efficacy be worth taking the risk of unethical actions in gild to improve efficiency and competitiveness. Therefore, marketers from low uncertainty avoidance countries are likely to bind less importance to ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness. Individuals in countries ranking high on Confucian muscularity bleed to adhere to the more future-oriented teachings of Confucius those from countries ranking low on Confucian dynamism tend to be more present- and past-oriented (Hofstede and Bond, 1988).From the perspective of this theater of operations, marketers from cultures ranking high on Confucian dynamism have a strong sense of chagrin and are likely to be wary of actions that are improper or disgraceful. Marketers from high Confucian dynamism countries (such as Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, and Ko rea) would, therefore, believe that any actions transport disrepute and shame to the lodge would be detrimental to organizational performance. This is also consistent with the greater future-orientation of individuals from these countries.Alternatively, it is also executable that marketers from high Confucian dynamism countries might be sensitive to the shame arising out of inferior performance and might therefore believe that greater efficiency and profits are important at the cost of ethics and social responsibility. In other words, the effects of Confucian dynamism might be expected in both directions. send back I summarizes Hofstedes ranking of the quartette countries on five dimensions of culture (Hofstede, 1980 Hofstede and Bond, 1988).It is apparent that, in general, Australians, Ameri usher outs, and South Africans are higher on individualism and masculinity and get on uncertainty avoidance and power distance than Malaysians. On Confucian dynamism, the USA and Australia rank very close. Although there is no ranking available for South Africa and Malaysia, Malaysians can be expected to rank higher because of a strong Chinese influence, especially in the trading sector (Hong Kong and Taiwan rank first and second on Confucian dynamism).Based on individualism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance, Malaysian marketers would be expected to have lower comprehend importance of ethics and social responsibility than marketers from Australia, South Africa, and the USA. Based on masculinity, it would be expected that Malaysian managers will have greater comprehend importance of ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness than those from the other trey countries, whereas based on Confucian dynamism it is only possible to hypothesize differences.Therefore, based on the cultural differences outlined above, we would expect Australian, Malaysian, US, and South African marketers to attach different levels of importance to eth ics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness. Economic environment differences. Countries also have different economic and tune environments, including the licit environment and societal expectations about business ethics in a given country.In substantial countries (such as the USA and Australia), the business environment is typically characterized by powerful business enterprises, a legal environment aimed at eliciting ethical behaviors on the part of businesses, and societal expectations that businesses should be more ethical and socially responsible. These environmental forces may make the marketers in developed countries attach greater importance to the ethical and social responsibilities of their several(prenominal) businesses. In developing countries, on the other hand (e. . Malaysia and South Africa), the business and economic environmental forces are still evolving and hence the marketers perceived importance of business ethics and social respo nsibility may be lower relative to their counterparts in developed Country Australia Malaysia South Africa USA power distance Individualism 36 104 49 40 (41) (1) (36-37) (38) 90 26 65 91 (2) (36) (16) (1) Masculinity 61 50 63 62 (16) (25-26) (13-14) (15) Uncertainty avoidance 51 36 49 46 (37) (46) (39-40) (43) Confucian dynamism 31 (11-12) n/a n/a 29 (14)How important are ethics? 137 noe a Ranks range from 1-53 for all dimensions except Confucian dynamism 1-20 Source Hofstede (1980) and Hofstede and Bond (1988) control board I. scads (and ranks) for the cardinal countries on Hofstedes dimensionsa European ledger of Marketing 35,1/2 138 countries. From other perspective, in developed countries the markets are likely to be more competitive, and therefore, issues of client service and merriment might be relatively more important.Therefore, in making decisions, marketers from developed countries are less likely to take actions that are detrimental to the reputation of the compan y, fearing regulation as well as consumer dissatisfaction. In the context of this theatre, marketers from the USA and Australia should place greater importance on ethics and social responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness than marketers from South Africa and Malaysia. Differences in legal/political environment. In the Hunt and Vitell (1993) model, legal/political environment is depicted as a variable influencing ethical decision making.The relationship among the legal environment and ethics has been recognized by many business ethics scholars. For example, Beauchamp and Bowie (1993, p. 4) noted that Law is the publics agency for translating morality into expressed social guidelines and practices and stipulating offenses. DeGeorge (1990, p. 14) noted that stemma is a social enterprise. Its mandate and limits are set by society. The limits are often moral, but they are also ofttimes written into law. Dunfee (1996, p. 18) stated that the legal system is someti mes needed to nurture or implement the moral preferences of society, particularly with reference to linguistic universal moral prohibitions against physical harm. He also argued that where moral views have not converged toward a sufficiently broad consensus, the law may help to bring about a alternate in attitude. In the context of our study, these discussions take that the legal/political framework within a country can be expected to impact a managers perceptions about ethics and social responsibility.Business ethics scholars have also noted that the legal/political systems vary across countries (e. g. Vogel, 1992). In his analysis of the USA, Western Europe, and Japan, Vogel (1992) noted that in spite of globalization, the norms of business (as well as business and academic interest) in ethics were substantially higher in the USA than in other advanced capitalist countries. He attributed this to the distinctive institutional, legal, social, and cultural environment in the USA. In the context of this study, differences can be expected in the legal/political environments in the USA, Australia, Malaysia, and South Africa. While in the USA the legal/political systems are relatively well developed (and in Australia to a certain degree), the regulatory environments in Malaysia and South Africa are evolving, and therefore, the existence as well as the particularisedity of laws may vary across the foursome countries. The importance of ethics is also influenced by the degree of law enforcement, where we also can expect differences across the four countries.While elaborate legal/political systems prevail for enforcement in the USA, they are relatively less prevalent (and to change degrees) in Australia, Malaysia, and South Africa. Vogel (1992, p. 32) pointed out that even compared to other advanced countries, the enforcement of law in the USA is more stringent, and gave the chase example, In America each new disclosure of business misconduct prompts a new rove of public indignation, accompanied by numerous articles n the business and universal press which bemoan the general decline in the ethical conduct of managers and seek to explain what went wrong in the close to recent case. This is frequently followed by Congressional hearings featuring politicians demanding more vigilant prosecution of white-collar criminals curtly thereafter, regulatory standards are tightened, penalties are increased, and enforcement efforts are strengthened. How important are ethics? 139It should be recognized that the possible influences of the legal/political environment are more complex than discussed here, because of the range of issues involved as well as the aspects of environment that cannot be measured directly, such as the enforcement of regulatory systems. However, differences exist in the midst of the four countries in the legal/political environment, which can be expected to influence managers perceived importance of ethics and social responsib ility relative to organizational effectiveness.In the preceding paragraphs, country differences were analyzed based on three aspects (1) culture (2) economic development and (3) legal/political environment. Overall, based on cultural differences, we expect Australian, Malaysian, US, and South African marketers to attach different levels of importance to ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness. Based on economic environment differences, we expect that marketers from the USA and Australia will place greater importance on ethics and social responsibility than marketers from South Africa and Malaysia.Given that legal and political environments tend to vary amidst the four countries, we also expect the managers from these four diverse countries to attach different levels of importance to ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness. Thus, the following hypothesis was formulated H1 Due to differences in culture, economic de velopment, and legal/political environment, there are differences in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility among marketers in Malaysia, Australia, South Africa, and the USA.In analyzing country differences, it is evident that seven-fold aspects of country differences influence marketers perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility, at times in conflicting ways (as in the effects of masculinity and individualism). Also, since this is the first attempt at investigating crosscultural variation in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness, there is a privation of knowledge regarding the relative importance of differences in cultural European ledger of Marketing 35,1/2 140 dimensions.Consequently, it is not possible to hypothesize the direction of differences, only their existence. organizational ethical climate In the Hunt and Vitell (1986 1993) models, organizational ethical climat e is included as a range variable that affects a marketers ethical decision making. Organizational ethical climate refers to the shared sense regarding what is correct behavior and how ethical issues will be handled (DeConinck, 1992). It helps establish and maintain the standards that delineate the right things to do and the things worth doing (Jansen and Von Glinow, 1985).The ethical climate in an organization affects ethical attitudes and standards of individuals. An organization that seeks to nurse an ethical environment will not only have a code of ethics, but also the willingness and commitment to enforce it. Managers consider modifying the morality of their actions not just because of stated organizational concern, but only when particularised sanctions are attached for misconduct (e. g. Laczniak and Inderrieden, 1987). The contention that organizational pressures, and not individual moral deficiencies, account for unethical standards is held by several authors (e. . Ford and Richardson, 1994). Weeks and Nantel (1992) found that wellcommunicated codes of ethics led to higher ethical standards and superior job performance of salespeople in the USA. Consequently, marketers in companies with an ethical climate that encourages ethical and socially responsible behavior and that punishes unethical behavior would perceive ethics to be more important for organizational effectiveness. Research has shown that when ethical standards of an organization are astray shared, organizational success will be enhanced (Hunt et al. 1989). Relevant to this study, in a recent study of US marketers, Singhapakdi et al. (1995) revealed that marketers in organizations with high levels of corporal ethical values tended to assign a higher level of importance to certain elements of corporate ethics and social responsibility. Therefore, we hypothesize that H2 regardless of country, organizational ethical climate is positively related to managers perceived importance of ethics a nd social responsibility relative to different aspects of organizational effectiveness. sexual practice Gender is generally recognized as an important personal characteristic influencing an individuals ethical decisions. For example, Gilligan (1982) argued that men and women differ in their moral reasoning. In particular, men are more likely to adhere to the ethic of justice by accentuation rules and individual rights. Women, however, are more likely to adhere to the ethic of caveat by emphasizing relationships and compassion. In a recent meta-analysis, Franke et al. (1997) used data from more than 20,000 respondents in 66 tastes nd revealed that women are more likely than men to perceive business practices as unethical. Although there has been no research directly investigating the effects of gender on perceived important of ethics and social responsibility, it has been incorporated in numerous marketing ethics studies. Based on the work of Gilligan (1982) and Franke et al. (199 7), it can be argued that the ethic of condole with exhibited by women would lead them to believe that taking actions in the interest of the customer would enhance company performance and would contribute to a perception of greater importance of ethics in organizational effectiveness.Thus, we would expect women to attach greater importance to ethics and social responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness. H3 disregardless of country, women perceive ethics and social responsibility to be more important relative to different aspects of organizational effectiveness than men. years Marketing ethics theories generally recognize personal characteristics as determinants of various aspects of a marketers ethical decision-making process (e. g. Ferrell and Gresham, 1985 Hunt and Vitell, 1986).Age could also directly influence an individuals ethical decision. According to Kohlbergs (1981) cognitive moral development theory, an individuals cognition, emotion, and judgment may change as he/she moves through stages of moral development. Given that an individual moves through stages of moral development and the changes are essentially repayable to life experiences, intuitively one would expect a positive relationship between age and ethical behavior. In fact, Terpstra et al. (1993) have argued that people tend to become more ethical as they grow older.A good explanation is that as people age they tend to become less have-to doe with with wealth and advancement and more interested in personal growth (Hall, 1976). In other words, older marketers are likely to appreciate the long-term benefits (to organizational performance) of acting in an ethical and socially responsible manner. Accordingly, we would generally expect a positive relationship between a marketers age and his or her perception about the importance of ethics and social responsibility.H4 Irrespective of country, a marketers age is positively related to his/her perception of the importance of ethics and social responsibility relative to different aspects of organizational effectiveness. Methodology Sample A self-administered questionnaire was used as the data collection technique for all four groups of marketing practitioners. For the US and South African groups, national send out lists of professional members of the American Marketing Association (AMA) and the South African Institute of Marketing How important are ethics? 141 European diary of Marketing 35,1/2 142 attention were used as have frames.For the Australian sample, a mailing list of recipients of the Australian Marketing Institute magazine was used. For the Malaysian group, the sampling frame consisted of managers responsible for making marketing decisions for companies listed on the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange. The questionnaire was administered in incline for all four samples. Because Malaysia and South Africa are members of the British Commonwealth, English is a well-understood language, particularly in the business setting. The numbers of respondents were 500 from Australia, 446 from the USA, 256 from South Africa, and 159 from Malaysia1.The chemical reaction rates were 22. 7 percent (USA), 13 percent (South Africa), and 45 percent (Malaysia). Since questionnaires were not directly mailed to the sample in Australia, the response rate could not be assessed. The non-response warp for the USA and South African samples was assessed with an analysis of variance between the proto(prenominal) and late respondent groups (Armstrong and Overton, 1977). There were no statistical differences among the deuce groups for either country2. The profiles of the respondents are summarized in Table II.They represent a range of age groups, gender, job designations, industry, and years of experience, with claw differences between the four sets of respondents. Age and gender were included in the analyses. another(prenominal) variables (such as job title, education, and industry) were not include d as control variables because educational systems, industry classifications, and job titles and functions vary from country to country. Measures Singhapakdi et al. (1995) developed a outmatch for measuring managers perceptions about the importance of ethics and social responsibility (PRESOR) in organizational effectiveness.Seven of the 14 items from that case were used, relating to specific aspects of organizational effectiveness such as proceeds quality, efficiency, profitability, communication, long-term survival, competitiveness, and stakeholder satisfaction. Excluded items were statements such as levelheaded ethics is good business and corporate strategy should include ethics and social responsibility, which do not address specific aspects of organizational effectiveness. The scale items used in the analyses are shown in Table III. The factor structures were found to be similar across the four countries and the reliabilities were generally high3.It may be noted that the PR ESOR scale has previously performed satisfactorily in wrong of reliability, as well as content and predictive validity (Singhapakdi et al. , 1995, 1996). Organizational ethical climate, gender and age. The corporate ethical values (CEV) scale developed by Hunt et al. (1989) was used in this study to measure organizational ethical climate. The scale was designed to reflect a composite of the individual ethical values of managers and both the formal and informal policies on ethics of the organization (Hunt et al. , 1989). The five-item CEV scale4 was developed to three broad-based perceptionsCharacteristics of respondents Gender Male Female Age group Under 30 30 to 39 40 to 49 50 and over 50 Education High school or less Some college Bachelors degree Masters degree Doctorate differenta Job title CEO/president/MD/director Marketing managers Others perseverance USA Wholesale or retail Manufacturer or construction service Communications Advertising or public relations Marketing consul ting Other Malaysiab Consumer products Diversified Construction Trading services Finance Properties Plantation minelaying and primary resources Notes sample a b Australia (%) Malaysia (%) South Africa (%) USA (%)How important are ethics? 73. 0 27. 0 20. 0 35. 0 29. 0 17. 0 11. 0 15. 0 58. 0 15. 0 1. 0 37. 0 52. 0 11. 0 84. 0 16. 0 11. 0 39. 0 40. 0 10. 0 6. 0 10. 0 43. 0 24. 0 1. 0 16. 0 39. 0 30. 0 31. 0 80. 0 20. 0 4. 0 29. 0 40. 0 27. 0 6. 0 15. 0 30. 0 30. 0 19. 0 2. 0 44. 0 37. 0 19. 0 51. 0 49. 0 17. 0 37. 0 29. 0 17. 0 1. 0 6. 0 43. 0 43. 0 6. 0 47. 0 43. 0 10. 0 143 3. 0 10. 0 20. 0 33. 0 7. 0 17. 0 6. 0 37. 0 4. 0 3. 0 28. 0 11. 0 13. 0 3. 0 1. 0 7. 0 20. 0 25. 0 7. 0 1. 0 5. 0 35. 0 12. 0 17. 0 35. 0 9. 0 7. 0 18. 0 2. 0 Other educational qualifications include professional education in the Malaysian This categorization of industries was appropriate in the Malaysian context Table II. Profiles of respondents in Australia, Malaysia, South Afr ica and USA 144 European daybook of Marketing 35,1/2 Organizational effectiveness dimension Univariate tests Quality while siding signal quality is essential for corporate success, ethics and social responsibility are not NS Communication communication is more important to the boilers suit effectiveness of an organization than whether or not it is concerned with ethics and social responsibility 5. 1 0. 0001 Profits The most important concern for a firm is making profits, even if it convey bending or breaking rules 5. 45 0. 0001 Competitiveness To remain competitive in a global environment, business firms will have to inattention ethics and social responsibility NS Survival If survival of a business enterprise is at stake, then you must forget about ethics and social responsibility 21. 25 0. 0001 Efficiency Efficiency is much more important to the firm than whether or not the firm is seen as ethical or socially responsible 14. 1 0. 0001 Stakeholder satisfaction If stakeholders are unhappy, zip else matters 11. 19 0. 0001 multivariate tests F based on Wilks lambda (21, 3,673 df) 5. 38 0. 0001 66. 43 28. 62 74. 24 49. 95 39. 79 29. 46 27. 17 0. 0001 0. 0001 0. 0001 0. 0001 0. 0001 0. 0001 0. 0001 Table III. Multivariate and univariate results Country Organizational culture Gender Age 17. 88 0. 0001 3. 68 0. 0552 8. 97 0. 0028 6. 46 0. 0112 17. 63 0. 00001 NS NS 2. 56 NS 0. 0535 NS NS NS NS NS 1) the extent to which employees perceive their managers are acting ethically in their organization (item 1) (2) the extent to which employees perceive that managers are concerned about the issues of ethics in their organization (item 3) and (3) the extent to which employees perceive that ethical (unethical) behavior is rewarded (punished) in their organization (items 2, 4, and 5) (Hunt et al. , 1989). The CEV was measured victimisation a nine-point Likert scale with 1= on the whole disagreeand 9= completely agree.For each respondent, the CEV score was obtained by summing all CEV items (with items 1 and 2 reverse-coded). A high CEV score means that the manager works in an organization with higher corporate ethical values. The similarity of factor structures of the CEV scale between the four countries was assessed to be moderate and the reliabilities of the scale were high5. The CEV measure has been used in the past (e. g. Hunt et al. , 1989 Singhapakdi et al. , 1995). Gender was measured as a dichotomous variable and age was measured in four categories.Results Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed using the seven PRESOR items as dependent variables, and the country of residence, organizational ethical climate, gender, and age as independent variables6. MANOVA results show that overall country of residence, organizational ethical climate, gender, and age noteworthyly explain differences between marketers from the four countries in their perception of the importance of ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizati onal effectiveness (F = 5. 38 based on Wilks Lambda, p 0. 001). H1 states that there are country differences in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness. Univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) identify significant cross country differences between marketers on all PRESOR items except output quality and competitiveness. For example, there are differences in the extent to which marketers from the four countries believe that the most important concern for a firm is making profits, even if it means bending or breaking rules (F = 5. 45, p . 001). Also, there are differences in the extent to which they agree with statements such as if survival of a business enterprise is at stake, then you must forget about ethics and social responsibility (F = 21. 25, p 0. 0001), efficiency is much more important to the firm than whether or not the firm is seen as ethical or socially responsible (F = 14. 91, p . 0001), and communication i s much more important to the overall effectiveness of an organization than whether or not it is concerned with ethics and social responsibility (F = 5. 1, p 0. 0001). Therefore, there is support for H1 (average rafts for marketers from the four countries on each of the seven items are given in Table IV). How important are ethics? 145 European Journal of Marketing 35,1/2 146 H2 states that the organizational ethical climate positively influences managers perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility. In fact, results indicate it has a strong influence on all seven dimensions of PRESOR with F statistics ranging from 27. 17 to 74. 24 (with all p 0. 0001). Therefore, H2 is supported.Results also indicate gender differences in managers perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness on the quality, communication, profits, competitiveness, and survival dimensions, but not on the efficiency and stakeholder satisfaction dimens ions (F statistics ranging from 3. 68 to 17. 88). Therefore, H3 is generally supported. Also, results related to H4 indicate that, in general, there are no age differences in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness.Therefore, H4 is not supported. The lack of significance of age in influencing PRESOR is probably a reflection of the greater impact of environmental factors such as greater societal expectations and awareness about ethical issues. Discussion and implications The current investigation into cross-country variation in perceptions of marketing professionals regarding the importance of ethics and social responsibility as determinants of business success has potential implications for international companies.In the international marketing context, cultural, economic, and other gaps between international buyers and sellers create the potential for conflicts of values, which in turn hinder liquid business interactio ns between the parties. Whether a marketing organization necessitates in exporting, importing, control stick ventures, licensing agreements or fully owns an overseas operation, the scope exists for conflict of values, especially in the areas of marketing ethics and social responsibility. For example, in recent years, companies in the USA have faced public disapproval of the unethical practices of their overseas suppliers.As businesses all over the world progressively globalize their operations, it becomes necessary that they understand whether there are significant gaps between their ethical and social responsibility perceptions and their overseas partners. Such perceptual gaps need to be systematically investigated and measures taken to reduce or, preferably, eliminate them in the interest of establishing enduring international business Organizational effectiveness dimension Australia 7. 67 6. 16 6. 93 7. 56 7. 22 6. 44 6. 82 Malaysia 7. 61 5. 27 6. 61 7. 27 5. 76 5. 12 5. 79 So uth Africa 7. 96 6. 40 7. 01 7. 71 7. 05 6. 26 6. 6 USA 7. 82 6. 23 7. 46 7. 69 7. 64 6. 72 7. 08 Table IV. Output quality Mean perceived Communication importance of ethics Profits and social responsibility rack up on Competitiveness different dimensions of Survival Efficiency organizational Stakeholder satisfaction effectiveness relationships. This study identified three sources of gaps that can exist between marketers from different countries in terms of the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness. They are (1) Country differences in culture, economic development, and legal/ political environment. 2) Differences in organizational ethical climate. (3) Gender differences. Similarities and differences were found between countries in terms of the extent to which they find ethics and social responsibility to be important relative to some dimensions of organizational effectiveness. On two dimensions, output quality and co mpetitiveness, there were no significant inter-country differences. It seems that output quality and competitiveness are universal business orientations exhibited by marketing executives, which is consistent with globalization of markets and the accompanying intensification of competition.International companies, therefore, may assume that their counterparts in different parts of the world will be as concerned with output quality and competitiveness (relative to ethical and social responsibility concerns). Hence, these two core business values can provide common bases for lucky international negotiations and establishing long-term relationships, which are critical for success in the international business arena.While there are inter-country similarities on these two dimensions, significant inter-country differences were found with regard to other organizational effectiveness dimensions communications, efficiency, profits, survival, and stakeholder satisfaction. Based on the finding s of our study, multi-national companies who transfer employees between these four countries can help them anticipate differences in perceptions about the importance of ethics and social responsibility relative to different aspects of organizational effectiveness.For example, Malaysian companies posting managers in Australia (or South Africa or the USA) might want to educate them about the environmental differences that lead to Australian managers placing greater importance on ethics and social responsibility relative to profitability, efficiency, communication, survival, and stakeholder satisfaction. These perceptual differences can impact ethical attitudes and actions, and therefore, managerial expectations about overseas employees should be altered accordingly.Corporate managers should also give a thought to what can be done to overcome these differences in perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility. The content of ethics training programs can incorporate the findin gs of this study by developing scenarios and cases highlighting the tradeoffs between ethics and social responsibility, and specific aspects of organizational effectiveness, such as efficiency and stakeholder satisfaction. These scenarios can be drawn-out by including cross-national differences in How important are ethics? 47 European Journal of Marketing 35,1/2 148 culture, economic development, and legal/political environment, as well as differences in perceptions about ethics and social responsibility across countries. Organizational ethical climate positively influenced the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility across all four countries. Irrespective of the country, organizational ethical climate had a strong influence on all seven dimensions of organizational effectiveness vis-a-vis ethics A and social responsibility.Therefore, we can conclude that organizations from different countries with similar organizational ethical climates can find common ground on i ssues of ethics and social responsibility. Hence, international companies, when scouting for suitable partners in foreign markets, may case for overseas partners with similar organizational ethical values. This would ensure smoother business relations and interactions especially in the areas of ethics and social responsibility.Also, it is useful for international marketers to know that, in general, women perceive ethics and social responsibility to be more important in achieving organizational effectiveness than men, though there are no differences across age groups. This is particularly relevant given the increase in employment of women in the workplace. Limitations This study has some potential limitations. One concerns the limited number of factors investigated in our study. Ethical decision making is a very complex phenomenon, and exploring cross-cultural differences is even more difficult.For example, in addition to the variables we studied, marketing ethics theories have also specified moral philosophies, personal values, religion, professional environment, and organizational and industrial characteristics as important background factors underlying the ethical decision making of managers (e. g. Ferrell and Gresham, 1985 Hunt and Vitell, 1986). However, the scope of this study is limited to cultural dimensions, economic environment, organizational ethical climate, and selected demographic variables as explanatory factors.It should be pointed out that in this study, some important demographic variables, such as education, were not included because of a lack of conceptual equivalence, as explained in the next section. Another limitation concerns the samples analyzed in this study. Although four relatively diverse countries were studied, the findings can not be generalized to other countries with different cultural characteristics and levels of economic development. next research avenues This research can be extended in many ways. As a first step, a non-d irectional hypothesis for country differences was presented.This was necessitated by the fact that this was the first study dealing with the investigation of cross-cultural variation in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness. Future research should investigate the direction of expected differences. A comprehensive framework modeling antecedents and consequences of the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility can be developed and tested. This will add another dimension to our understanding of ethical decision making.As pointed out earlier, one limitation of this study concerns its limited samples and, consequently, its limited generalizability. Therefore, there is a need to replicate this study using managerial samples from other countries with different cultural characteristics and/or levels of economic development. Given the complexity of the phenomenon under study, future research should investig ate other determinants specified in marketing ethics models, such as moral philosophies, personal values, religion, professional environment, and organizational and industrial characteristics.Among demographic variables, education could be an important determinant but was not included because of a lack of conceptual equivalence. In cross-cultural research, conceptual equivalence in terms of the meaning of research concepts, stimuli, and materials must first be established before any meaningful similaritys are made (Malhotra et al. , 1996). In our study, the US sample is predominantly business-educated, which might not be the case with the other three samples. In addition to differences in the educational background of the managers, the lack of conceptual equivalence can also be attributed to .The educational systems and curricula in the four countries being different. . Differences in the extent to which ethics is required to be emphasize in the curriculum content across different countries (for example, accredited business schools in the USA are required to incorporate business ethics into their curricula, and such requirements might exist to a greater or lesser degree in other countries). . Variation in the extent to which ethics is actually incorporated and emphasized in the curricula.Thus, it is not education per se, but the incorporation of ethics into educational curricula, the actual implementation, and its impact on the managers that is likely to influence their perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility. In the future, the cross-country differences in educational background of the respondents as well as the extent to which ethics is emphasized in education should be measured, and analyzed as a potential factor influencing a managers perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility.Conclusion To summarize, this research investigated whether marketers from Australia, Malaysia, South Africa, and the USA differ in their beliefs reg arding the importance of ethics and social responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness. The study was based on an alternative approach to studying perceptions about ethical issues and problems in business. Traditionally cross- How important are ethics? 149 European Journal of Marketing 35,1/2 150 cultural researchers have evaluated ethical perceptions, attitudes, and intentions with regard to specific business/marketing practices involving ethical problems.Here, we investigate differences in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility in relation to various aspects of organizational effectiveness such as quality, communication, profits, competitiveness, survival, efficiency, and stakeholder satisfaction. The results of this study are important because perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility has been shown to influence ethical intention, when managers are faced with an ethical situation (Singhapakdi, 1999). Results indicate that di fferences in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility among marketers from the four countries exist because of . ountry differences in culture, economic development, and legal/political environment . differences in organizational ethical climate and . gender differences. There are not any differences due to age. Overall similarities and differences among the four countries emerged on specific dimensions of business effectiveness. On the dimensions of output quality and competitiveness, there were no differences among the four countries. Inter-country differences were found on the dimensions of communication, efficiency, profits, survival, and stakeholder satisfaction.These findings regarding cross-cultural similarities and differences are useful in furthering our understanding and precaution of ethics and social responsibility in the international context. Notes 1. For subsequent analysis using LISREL, a sample size of 159 was judged adequate because it is close to the recommended level of ten observations for both parameter estimated (Haire et al. , 1998). 2. For the Australian and Malaysian sample, the non-response bias based on early and late respondents could not be assessed as this information (i. e. dates when the questionnaires were received) was not preserve at the time of data collection. . The similarity of factor structures of the seven-item scale for individual countries was assessed with confirmatory factor analysis. break measures for individual countries, including chi-square per degree of freedom (range 1. 87-3. 32), GFI (0. 94-0. 97), AGFI (0. 890. 95), and CFI (range 0. 91-0. 96), for the four countries were high. The reliability of the seven-item scale ranged from 0. 73-0. 76 for the four countries. 4. The five items in the corporate ethical values scale were . Managers in my company often engage in behavior that I consider to be unethical. . In order to succeed in my company, if is often necessary to compromise ones ethics. Top management in my company has let it be known in no uncertain terms that unethical behaviors will not be tolerated. If a manager in my company is discovered to have engaged in unethical behavior that results in personal gain (rather than corporate gain), he/she will be instantly reprimanded. . If a manager in my company is discovered to have engaged in unethical behavior that results in corporate gain (rather than personal gain), he/she will be promptly reprimanded. 5.The similarity of factor structures of the five-item CEV scale for individual countries was assessed with confirmatory factor analysis. Fit measures for individual countries, including chi-square per degree of freedom (range 2. 00-35. 23), GFI (0. 88-0. 99), AGFI (0. 63-0. 99), and CFI (range 0. 74-0. 99), for the four countries were moderate. The reliability of the five-item scale ranged from 0. 69-0. 87 for the four countries. 6. Since a requirement of MANOVA is that the dependent variables be correlated, the appropriateness of the multivariate technique was tested by Bartletts test of sphericity (Hair et al. 1998). The test (Bartletts chi-square = 123. 7 with six degrees of freedom, p = 0. 001) indicated that MANOVA is appropriate for analyzing the data. . How important are ethics? 151 References Armstrong, J. S. and Overton, T. S. (1977), Estimating non-response bias in mail surveys, Journal of Marketing Research, No. 14 No. 3, pp. 396-402. Armstrong, R. W. , Stening, B. W. , Ryans, J. K. , Marks, L. and Mayo, M. (1990), International marketing ethics problems encountered by Australian firms, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 25 No. 10, pp. 5-19. Beauchamp, T. L. and Bowie, N.E. (1993), Ethical Theory and Business, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ . Becker, H. and Fritzsche, D. J. 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Reflective on practices Essay

This is a thoughtful es give voice based on my experiences whilst on my six week medical exam placement on a haematology ward at a local hospital. The aim of this es imagine is to discuss the mental and sociological involve on the family when a loved wizard dies, and and thence focus on how the view as supported the save and relatives by dint of their injury. I chose this particular ac companying as I felt genuinely strongly about the safeguard given to this patient shortly before her finish, and felt the need to smoothen on it further. In order to help me with my thoughtfulness I urinate chosen Gibbs (1988), as the model to help guide my pondering mold ( compute appendix 1). This model comprises of a process that helps the individual look at a fact and think about their thoughts and feelings at the age of the incident. wistful skills help us to think about what could go through been done, so that if a similar seat occurs again the experience gained stomach be apply to deal with the situation in a professional manner (Palmer et al 1997). To enable me to use this situation for my reflection the patient forgeting be referred to as Ann. This is in order that her real name is protected and that confidenti tout ensembley maintained in line with the NMC (2002) figure of Professional Conduct. DescriptionAnn was a 58 year old lady married to a rattling loving husband, she had been previously diagnosed withmultiple myeloma with secondary renal impairment, and had been receiving cycles of chemotherapy. My mentor and I were look after Ann on the day concerned, her observations were within the normal limits still she continue to complain of shortness of breath. She became truly anxious and I could tell by the look in her eyes she was frightened, and asked for me to get someone quick as she could non breathe properly. I callight-emitting diode my mentor as he was nigh who came over and gave Ann some oxygen. Ann said to the foster I can t breathe and seemed even more than anxious and shake, she repeated several quantify that she could non breathe and each time the nurse replied rattling seriously and unsympathetically you can breathe, you are talking to me. Ann was by like a shot clutching at my hand and asking me not to reach her alone, I reassured her that I would stay with her as long as she wanted me to.My mentor then summoned me to attend another patient nearby, so I explained to Ann and apologised that I had to go and reluctantly did as I was asked by my mentor. On fall ining to Ann she was erect to be tachycardic and having great difficulty in breathing. The doctors thenarrived and it was suggested that her husband be called as she was deteriorating. It was at this time I had previous arrangements and so had to leave the ward for a short time. On my return to the ward a nurse informed me that at that place had been a cardiac arrest on the ward whilst I had been gone, I instinctively knew it was A nn. She had died alone, whist my mentor had been be another patient. I was informed that an attempt had been make to resuscitate her, without success, she was then pronounced dead.Anns husband and family were already waiting in the relatives room, and so were informed that she had passed away. It was the families wish to be left alone with Ann, to allow them to say their farewells, they were reassured by the nurse that someone was available should they need company at this very emotional time. My mentor then spent a short time with the family explaining the procedures and helping them with any information they wanted, including details on where to go for help and support if they needed and where to obtain the death certificate. FeelingsOn reflection of the incident I felt that I did not playact in the best interests of Ann, as the NMC (2002) (clause 1) states that I am answerable for my actions and omissions, disregarding of advice or directions from another professional. I felt angry that I was made to leave a patient who was obviously very frightened and anxious, when there was no reason for me not to stay with her. Scrutton (1995) reinforces this by stating that the support of a friendly nurse in stressful situations can greatly funk the anxiety and fear of the patient. I agree with this and felt that it was a violate that I was not there for her and feel she would throw appreciated my company. I understand that nurses are busy and affirm to prioritise their work but at this present time there was no urgent situation that required me to leave her. I felt angry and annoyed that when the family came to great deal her body, the nurse involved actually started to show some concern for Ann when merely a short time earlier he had no time for her at all. EvaluationIt was a shame that a professional nurse acted in the way that he did, ignoring how anxious and upset she was be advance at not being able to breathe. The nurses compassion and communication ski llsseemed to be very much lacking, not perceive to her concerns and not demo any feelingstowards her. Cooley (2000) acknowledges the emergency of all nurses to use basic interpersonal skills, to appear warm and accept to patients whilst allocating time and attention to communication. Fallowfield and Jenkins (1999) discuss how nurses can worry about not knowing what to say or saying the wrong thing when communicating with dying patients and their relatives, which can create barriers in communication. It was this lack of communication that led to a breakd give birth in the nurse-patient-relationship, with the patient being fearful of the nurses return to the bedside, and begging me not to leave her alone.Which was also in contravention of the NMC Code of Professional Conduct (2002) clauses, 1 2 5 and 7. By not sense of hearing, reassuring and comforting the patient, all of this added extra stressors to Ann who was already anxious and passing scared. I feel that I should have r eacted differently in this situation and been more confident and assertive and stand up to my mentor and say that I would stay with Ann, as she wanted me to. I could not see any good points at first in the situation itself, hitherto on reflection of the situation I think it made me outcome a good look inside myself and think of how I would have handled the situation if I were the staff nurse, again I keep coming up with the same thoughts of how important good communication, compassion and basic nursing skills are, being there to reassure a patient when they are scared or anxious, also being there to hold their hand and declare oneself some support.Which in turn made me more aware of my own communication skills and how effective they are and if there is any room for improvement, out-of-pocket to this reflection process and facial expression within myself I have seen a vast improvement in my nursing skills and patient observations and the care I deliver. From my point of view it has been a good exercise in screening me how not to treat patients. AnalysisInforming the relatives of the death of their loved one is perhaps one of the most distressing and difficult acts performed by wellness professions, and essential be handled with genuinely caring and sensitive manner (Reed 2002). The intelligence service of Anns death came as a great shock to her husband and relatives, even though they knew she was terminally ill they were not mentally hustling for her death, and so were in a state of shock and disbelief when initially informed of her death. Scrutton (1995) discusses how the death of a partneris the most difficult losings to come to terms with and the nurse has an important role in keep relatives through this very emotional time. Kbler-Ross (1981) suggests that the presence of the nurse who was looking after the patient helps the family feel more at ease, even when the countersign is told by a member of medical staff.According to Worden (1991) individu als react to injury in a variety of different ways, it is common for relatives to be angry, in disbelief or frustrated and nurses need to be aware of the differences responses to prejudice and offer appropriate support to the individual. Parkes (1988) theory of loss explains the challenges involved in situations of loss, which according to Worden (1991) can affect individuals in an emotional, physical, behavioural or psychological way. Parkes (1988) suggests a process of realisation, denial and avoidance followed by feelings of anxiety, restlessness and fear. Nurses must be fully aware of the range of emotions and the psychological affect the loss of a loved one can have on the family. The relatives wanted to spend some time alone with Ann to say their goodbyes, so the nurse ensured they were given privacy to enable them to do this.Preparing the body for the relatives to see before the last offices is very important (Wright 1991). Alexander et al (1994) have highlighted the grand eur of this and have stated that the last sight of their loved one will remain in their memory of the relatives for a very long time, so it is the nurses responsibility to ensure that the appearance of the body does not disturb them. The death of Ann has also had a great sociological bushel on the family, they have suffered multiple losses this being the initial loss of the person themselves, and a loss of roles and relationships the loss of the whole family unit, and finally the loss of hopes and dreams her husband and family had for their early together (Heming & Colmer 2003). It is the nurses role to support the family through these first stages of loss, to listen to them showing genuine care and compassion for the anguish and upset they are feeling. closedownI felt that the approach I took was not correct, after all the patients needs were paramount and although I am a student, I should have acted in the patients best interests. Overall I have found it very rewarding reflecti ng on this incident, I have been able to identify my weaknesses that can now be turned into strengths. I now feel that I am a stronger person growing inconfidence and now will ensure I confront my fears of acting against someone in the defence of a patient. Action PlanUsing Gibbss reflective cycle has helped me make more sense of the situation and put things into perspective, recognising how I can put this learning experience to positive use in my future practice as a Nursing professional. If this situation were to evolve again I know I would now have the courageousness to question the nurses attitude at an earlier stage pointing out that badly practice by anyone is not acceptable. I have made arrangements to discus this incident, and others I am concerned with to the ward manager, as it my first context to protect the interests and safety of patients, in line with the NMC (2002) Code of Professional Conduct, (clause 8). This reflection has highlighted the need to increase my kn owledge and understanding of the process of loss and grief, I will address these issues by visiting the bereavement officer for the trust, listening and learning from the qualified staff and by reading relevant literature. endIn conclusion it can be seen that the nurse has a very important role in supporting the patients relatives through their loss, emotionally, psychologically and a caring perspective. It can be seen from this reflection that effective communication and listening skills are the key to effective care to enable nurses to support families through their loss. Parkes (1988) model of loss has been useful in understanding the psychological impact of the loss of a family member, helping nurses to support those experiencing loss, although each person will react differently it gives nurses a framework enabling them to be more prepared.

Parenting In Pride and Prejudice Essay

The novel Pride and parti pris involves many topics and symbolizes antithetic aspects of life and way of people. In this es verify I am passage to analyze and establish the theme of pargonnthood. I will exactly comment on the regions that are grows or come over as parents, namely, Mr. bennet, Mrs. white avens, Mr. Gardiner, Mrs. Gardiner and skirt Catherine De Bourgh. The last character mentioned may non come over as a parent precisely she acts like one. To begin with, I will start talk of the town about the bennet family. If we look at the white avenss with modern eyes, we could say that their sort towards their daughters is actually different from how parents attain along with their children nowadays. In modern confederation parents do non marry of their children, we could see this as old fashioned. plainly in the 19th century the richesy families wanted that their descendants conjoin new(prenominal) wealthy families in order to save their property. The happin ess and feelings of the children did non matter to the parents as we bed see in Pride and Prejudice. Mr. Bennet loves his family that he detaches from them in order not to get obscure with their lives. He gets on really well with Elizabeth because they both are the close in key outigent members of the Bennet family. But as the novel evolves he turns into a father that is weak and in critical moments he fails his family. For instance, he fails his family when Lydia runs hit with Wickham. My dear Mr. Bennet, verbalise his lady to him one day, establish you heard that Netherfield position is let at last? Mr. Bennet replied that he had not.But it is, returned she for Mrs. massive has effective been here, and she told me all about it. Mr. Bennet made no answer. Do not you want to know who has taken it? cried his wife impatiently. You want to recount me, and I have no objection to hearing it. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice, tawdriness I, Chapter I, page 5)In this short extract of the novel Pride and Prejudice a lot is shown about Mr. Bennet and his wife. In the first sise imbibes it is seen that Mr. Bennet does not care that someone has come to live to Netherfield Park. quite his wife insists on telling him allthing she knows about it. Mr. Bennet, to me, does not care and in a way teases his wife by being so uninterested. He knows that this behavior makes his wife very nervous but the last line takes all the tension away.You expect a huge quarrel but instead you read this line and, at least I was, a little bit astonished because I did not expect that answer, world from him. Going back to the topic of parenting this extract is quite interesting. It shows that Mr. Bennet is static about everything that has to do with his daughters but, on the other hand, Mrs. Bennet wants to know everything that is going on because she wants to marry off her daughters to a wealthy gentleman. She git still think of that. She does not care at all about the fe eling of her daughters. Dining out, said Mrs. Bennet, that is very unlucky. Can I have the carriage, said Jane.No, my dear, you had better go on horseback, because it seems likely to rain and then you moldiness stay all night. That would be a good scheme, said Elizabeth, if you were real that they would not offer to send her home. Oh But the gentleman will have Mr. Bingleys chaise to go to Meryton and Hursts have no horses theirs. I overmuch rather go in the coach.But, my dear, your father give the gatenot spare the horses, I am sure. They are wanted in the farm, Mr. Bennet, are they not? (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice, hoi polloi I, Chapter 7, page 31)Here we can see the clear interest of Mrs. Bennet towards Jane, the oldest daughter. She wants her daughter to go to the lunch and to stay over there because it belike will rain. Even though there is a chance that Jane gets ill, Mrs. Bennet insists on Jane going over to the lunch. This behavior shows the readers that she care s about her daughter but, she only wants to be sure that the property and everything that they posses will not end up with Mr. Bennets cousin. Mrs. Bennet continues to behave in this way during on the whole the novel. At no point, the reader can see affection from Mrs. Bennet towards her daughters. Certainly, we can see no motherly behavior she never gets obscure with the daily chores of the house or with the personal hygiene of her daughters. Something that mothers nowadays do a lot, getting involved with her childrens life.Mr. and Mrs. Gardiner are very different from Mr. and Mrs. Bennet. The Gardiners do care about the feeling of their children. In this case they get along very well with Jane and Elizabeth and foster them with the struggle they have with Bingley and Darcy. We can see that Mrs. Gardiner cares for her nieces because she does things to protect the girls, so as to prevent them to do trustworthy things they might regret in the future. She protects them as a mother should do, she gives them advice, and she listens to the girls.Mrs. Gardiner is the opposite word of Mrs. Bennet. The former involves to a greater extent in the lives of the girls and guides them through it while the latter just wants that her daughters to marry some rich man in order not to lose their possessions they have at Longbourn. In the next extract the readers can see what kind of a adult female Mrs. Gardiner is Her aunty assured her that she was and Elizabeth having thanked her for the forgivingness of her hinds, they parted a wonderful instance of advice being given on such a point, without being resented. (Austen, Volume II, Chapter III, page 143)Austen describes Mr. Gardiner in the pursuit way Mr. Gardiner was a sensible, gentlemanlike man, greatly superior to his sister as well by nature as education.(Austen, Volume II, Chapter 2, page 137) Although Mr. Gardiner does not appear much in the novel he is present every time his carrying wife appears. Frankly, every time Mrs. Gardiner appears I imagine that her husband is involved in the conversation and thought of his wife. Lady Catherine De Bourgh is Darcys aunt and she does not want that some girl, especially not with lower fond wealth marries her nephew. Lady De Bourgh is a very wealthy woman and with this she thinks that she has to tell other people how, why and when they should do things or not. When she dresss out that Elizabeth is very fond of Darcy she asks Elizabeth many questions on the one hand, to let Elizabeth know that she is more intelligent and from a higher kind class on the other hand, to maybe scare Elizabeth off.If we analyze this behavior taking in servant parenthood, we could say that she is protective and cares about her family. After all, the reader knows who and what kind of woman she is and that all those questions are just for personal interest and not to help her nephew Darcy. To conclude, I would like to say that many different manners of being a parent appea r in the novel. We have seen the Bennet family, the Gardiner family and Lady Catherine De Bourgh. We could say that the Mr. and Mrs. Bennet are cold people they do not care about the feelings of their children and they only care about their reputation and social wealth. On the other hand the Gardiners are protective towards the Bennet girls.They canvass to help them by giving them advice and to talk to other people to find out in what situation the girls are putting themselves into. Last but not least, Lady Catherine De Bourgh. She is from a wealthy social class and does everything she can so that no one with a lower social wealth comes into her family. Finally she has to accept that Elizabeth and Darcy get married. In the end I could say that different types of parenthood appear in the novel. To me, parents should get involved in the life of their children, to protect them and prevent them of making mistakes they will regret. Being a good parent involves being there for your child ren and not to act in your personal interest. The only family that is honest, to me, is the Gardiner family.

Educating Rita

New cognizes often occur in the transition of culmination into the institution. People in society learn to check maturation and cope with adjustment in the demesne and themselves. Willy Russells tend Educating Rita, confronts assorted pathways between the dickens protagonists, hot dog and Rita and there approach into the origination journey. In the lam Willy Russell usages visual techniques such as positioning, act upon, facial expression, and symbols. The physical exertion of these techniques has allowed the composer to stage a better sagacity of the licentiousness Educating Rita and how it represents the message of orgasm into the adult male. write an essay quickly One of the important themes in Educating Rita is careen. Rita indigences to move into a antithetic solid ground from where she grew up in. At the beginning of the accept the audience comes to understand Rita miscellaneas her name from Susanne to Rita. This is significant as it shows an indi cation that she wishs to transform herself, leaving her past arsehole her. plain-spoken yet becomes uncomfortable with the idea of cosmos the mechanism of Ritas compound. The theme castrate is represented in the positioning of the deuce protagonists as it signifies both stamp and Rita as approach path into the populace.The positioning of the characters shows domestic dog standing over Rita, distinctively reflecting the authority of stamp as he is the professor and the enthusiasm of Rita, as she is getting an breeding she is finding herself See I dont wanna a baby yet. See, I wanna discover myself first. (Act sensation Pg. 12) This shows Rita glide slope into the world as her transition of be sexual climax educated helps her discover herself. coarse neverthe slight has many questions, what can I teach you? (Act wizard Pg. 3) This dis operates plain-spoken without authority as he is asking Rita what she desires to learn, meaning that even though plainspoken is edu cated it does not mean he has all the answers. The food coloring of the visual text overly expose the theme of depart reveals a sense of approaching into the world as it shows Rita wearing blue, a magnificent coloured shirt, which shows the passion for her cultivation. This relates to her comes orgasm into the world as Rita has experienced heart sentence without an statement and is now be approach shot educated through help and experience of her professor blunt, she has come to terms with changing the outside you similarly involve to shift the inside. But if you want to transmit y have to do it from the inside, dont y? Know, like Im doin. (Act maven Pg. 11 This shows Rita wanting to counterchange. stamp even is wearing a schematic suit, dark and professional colours which designate to the audience that the image creation impersonateed is antithetic to what his personality is. This is to a fault show that although hot dog is spiffed up professionally he i s still a drunk. hound is teaching beca physical exercise he has to not because he wants to. This shows how his passion is not there. frump does not experience a positive change throughout the symbolise. He becomes little(prenominal) drear and more pig headed Rita Do y motivating the m atomic number 53y? dog I do as a matter of fact. (Act wiz Pg. 4). rudes therefor is depicting that he is teaching Rita for the m wizardy, although Rita have intercourses this she does not pay spirit to it as she is getting an education she is happy. This shows both Frank and Rita coming into the world. Another theme that is relevant and used throughout the play to prove into the world is Social change. Rita feels as though she is socially disadvantaged as she is not educated with her working class neighbourhood. Her whole ego for an education was when her husband Denny, wanted to have a baby and she was flavour for a better way of livin me feeling. The use of facial expression is used i n the visual text to acquaint feeling and a sense of brain. Rita sounding up at Frank shows her wanting him to understand how much she wants an education. This shows Rita maturing as a working class citizen. Rita But I had a choice. I chose me. Because of what youd given me I had a choice. ( Act two Pg. 72) This quote shows Ritas transition of coming into the world. Franks facial expression is less desirous. It shows him holding a book, portraying that Frank wants Rita to learn herself, backing up the play when he says he does not want to be the model to Ritas change.Although Frank understands Rita wants an education he does not understand wherefore she wants one now. Frank But I dont grapple what I want to tell you, Rita, I dont survive what I want to teach you. What you already have is valuable. (Scene 1 Pg. 48). This shows Franks confusion towards Rita. Choices and consequences is another theme used in the play Educating Rita to show the transition of Frank and Rita com ing into the world. Ritas motivating is to achieve a direction in which she wants her breeding to follow. Ritas master(prenominal) choice of an education is so she can make more assured choices. Frank is also having to make choices too.Rita decides for Frank that he is teaching her and that he is to return next week. Frank feels as though he has forced Rita into losing her touch with parts of herself which were unique and precious. Franks spiritednesstime is unsatisfying for him but unlike Rita he choses to do nothing closely it. It is this choice he makes into him be sent to Australia at the end of the play. The use of symbols used in the visual text is used to demonstrate an discretion of the world around the two protagonists, Frank and Rita. The window is set lav the two characters but is significant as it is referred to a lot in the play.Rita always sounding out of the window to the educated class of flock sitting on the grass gives a certainty of her involve to campaign and to become educated. Frank however wont give up drinking. He always has an alcoholic drink with him this shows he has a problem. Although Rita uses the window to flight of steps, Frank uses it as a deception. He does not want to change he is satisfied with how he is. Frank does not accept change from choices that have been made. Frank No youve found a different song, thats all- and on your lips its shrill and hollow and tuneless. (Act two. Pg. 9) This quote covering the audience that Frank still has not changed from his morbid character at the beginning of the play till now. The visual text reveals Rita as an crazy student who wants an education to change her life and her past choices. The text also reveals Frank of his consequences. Frank not being able to stay life-threatening does not allow him to experience change throughout the transition of coming into the world, to his fullest potential. Into the world discusses change and experiences throughout ones life.. T he play Educating Rita mostly supports this.Educating RitaNew experiences often occur in the transition of coming into the world. People in society learn to experience maturement and cope with change in the world and themselves. Willy Russells play Educating Rita, demonstrates different pathways between the two protagonists, Frank and Rita and there coming into the world journey. In the play Willy Russell uses visual techniques such as positioning, coloring material, facial expression, and symbols. The use of these techniques has allowed the composer to portray a better understanding of the play Educating Rita and how it represents the message of coming into the world. write an essay quickly One of the master(prenominal) themes in Educating Rita is change. Rita wants to move into a different world from where she grew up in. At the beginning of the play the audience comes to understand Rita changes her name from Susanne to Rita. This is significant as it shows an indication that s he wants to transform herself, leaving her past back tooth her. Frank however becomes uncomfortable with the idea of being the mechanism of Ritas change. The theme change is represented in the positioning of the two protagonists as it signifies both Frank and Rita as coming into the world.The positioning of the characters shows Frank standing over Rita, distinctively reflecting the authority of Frank as he is the professor and the enthusiasm of Rita, as she is getting an education she is finding herself See I dont wanna a baby yet. See, I wanna discover myself first. (Act one Pg. 12) This shows Rita coming into the world as her transition of becoming educated helps her discover herself. Frank however has many questions, what can I teach you? (Act one Pg. 3) This displays Frank without authority as he is asking Rita what she wants to learn, meaning that even though Frank is educated it does not mean he has all the answers. The colouring of the visual text also expose the theme of c hange reveals a sense of coming into the world as it shows Rita wearing blue, a glistering coloured shirt, which shows the passion for her education. This relates to her experiences coming into the world as Rita has experienced life without an education and is now becoming educated through help and fellowship of her professor Frank, she has come to terms with changing the outside you also need to change the inside. But if you want to change y have to do it from the inside, dont y? Know, like Im doin. (Act one Pg. 11 This shows Rita wanting to change. Frank however is wearing a testis suit, dark and professional colours which demonstrate to the audience that the image being portrayed is different to what his personality is. This is also showing that although Frank is togged up professionally he is still a drunk. Frank is teaching because he has to not because he wants to. This shows how his passion is not there. Frank does not experience a positive change throughout the play. He becomes less sombre and more pig headed Rita Do y need the money?Frank I do as a matter of fact. (Act one Pg. 4). Franks therefor is depicting that he is teaching Rita for the money, although Rita go to beds this she does not pay hear to it as she is getting an education she is happy. This shows both Frank and Rita coming into the world. Another theme that is relevant and used throughout the play to demonstrate into the world is Social change. Rita feels as though she is socially disadvantaged as she is not educated with her working class neighbourhood. Her whole ego for an education was when her husband Denny, wanted to have a baby and she was looking for a better way of livin me life. The use of facial expression is used in the visual text to portray feeling and a sense of understanding. Rita looking up at Frank shows her wanting him to understand how much she wants an education. This shows Rita maturing as a working class citizen. Rita But I had a choice. I chose me. Because of what youd given me I had a choice. ( Act two Pg. 72) This quote shows Ritas transition of coming into the world. Franks facial expression is less evangelistic. It shows him holding a book, portraying that Frank wants Rita to learn herself, backing up the play when he says he does not want to be the imprint to Ritas change.Although Frank understands Rita wants an education he does not understand why she wants one now. Frank But I dont have intercourse what I want to tell you, Rita, I dont hunch what I want to teach you. What you already have is valuable. (Scene 1 Pg. 48). This shows Franks confusion towards Rita. Choices and consequences is another theme used in the play Educating Rita to show the transition of Frank and Rita coming into the world. Ritas penury is to achieve a direction in which she wants her life to follow. Ritas main choice of an education is so she can make more conscious choices. Frank is also having to make choices too.Rita decides for Frank that he is teaching her and that he is to return next week. Frank feels as though he has forced Rita into losing her touch with parts of herself which were unique and precious. Franks life is unsatisfying for him but unlike Rita he choses to do nothing most it. It is this choice he makes into him being sent to Australia at the end of the play. The use of symbols used in the visual text is used to demonstrate an understanding of the world around the two protagonists, Frank and Rita. The window is set behind the two characters but is significant as it is referred to a lot in the play.Rita always looking out of the window to the educated class of stack sitting on the grass gives a certainty of her need to race and to become educated. Frank however wont give up drinking. He always has an alcoholic drink with him this shows he has a problem. Although Rita uses the window to escape, Frank uses it as a deception. He does not want to change he is satisfied with how he is. Frank does not accept cha nge from choices that have been made. Frank No youve found a different song, thats all- and on your lips its shrill and hollow and tuneless. (Act two. Pg. 9) This quote showing the audience that Frank still has not changed from his morbid character at the beginning of the play till now. The visual text reveals Rita as an enthusiastic student who wants an education to change her life and her past choices. The text also reveals Frank of his consequences. Frank not being able to stay serious does not allow him to experience change throughout the transition of coming into the world, to his fullest potential. Into the world discusses change and experiences throughout ones life.. The play Educating Rita mostly supports this.Educating RitaNew experiences often occur in the transition of coming into the world. People in society learn to experience return and cope with change in the world and themselves. Willy Russells play Educating Rita, demonstrates different pathways between the two pro tagonists, Frank and Rita and there coming into the world journey. In the play Willy Russell uses visual techniques such as positioning, colouring, facial expression, and symbols. The use of these techniques has allowed the composer to portray a better understanding of the play Educating Rita and how it represents the message of coming into the world. write an essay quickly One of the main themes in Educating Rita is change. Rita wants to move into a different world from where she grew up in. At the beginning of the play the audience comes to understand Rita changes her name from Susanne to Rita. This is significant as it shows an indication that she wants to transform herself, leaving her past behind her. Frank however becomes uncomfortable with the idea of being the mechanism of Ritas change. The theme change is represented in the positioning of the two protagonists as it signifies both Frank and Rita as coming into the world.The positioning of the characters shows Frank standing over Rita, distinctively reflecting the authority of Frank as he is the professor and the enthusiasm of Rita, as she is getting an education she is finding herself See I dont wanna a baby yet. See, I wanna discover myself first. (Act one Pg. 12) This shows Rita coming into the world as her transition of becoming educated helps her discover herself. Frank however has many questions, what can I teach you? (Act one Pg. 3) This displays Frank without authority as he is asking Rita what she wants to learn, meaning that even though Frank is educated it does not mean he has all the answers. The colouring of the visual text also expose the theme of change reveals a sense of coming into the world as it shows Rita wearing blue, a scintillating coloured shirt, which shows the passion for her education. This relates to her experiences coming into the world as Rita has experienced life without an education and is now becoming educated through help and experience of her professor Frank, she ha s come to terms with changing the outside you also need to change the inside. But if you want to change y have to do it from the inside, dont y? Know, like Im doin. (Act one Pg. 11 This shows Rita wanting to change. Frank however is wearing a semi-formal suit, dark and professional colours which demonstrate to the audience that the image being portrayed is different to what his personality is. This is also showing that although Frank is garmented professionally he is still a drunk. Frank is teaching because he has to not because he wants to. This shows how his passion is not there. Frank does not experience a positive change throughout the play. He becomes less olive-drab and more pig headed Rita Do y need the money?Frank I do as a matter of fact. (Act one Pg. 4). Franks therefor is depicting that he is teaching Rita for the money, although Rita knows this she does not pay soul to it as she is getting an education she is happy. This shows both Frank and Rita coming into the wor ld. Another theme that is relevant and used throughout the play to demonstrate into the world is Social change. Rita feels as though she is socially disadvantaged as she is not educated with her working class neighbourhood. Her whole ego for an education was when her husband Denny, wanted to have a baby and she was looking for a better way of livin me life. The use of facial expression is used in the visual text to portray feeling and a sense of understanding. Rita looking up at Frank shows her wanting him to understand how much she wants an education. This shows Rita maturing as a working class citizen. Rita But I had a choice. I chose me. Because of what youd given me I had a choice. ( Act two Pg. 72) This quote shows Ritas transition of coming into the world. Franks facial expression is less enthusiastic. It shows him holding a book, portraying that Frank wants Rita to learn herself, backing up the play when he says he does not want to be the crop to Ritas change.Although Frank understands Rita wants an education he does not understand why she wants one now. Frank But I dont know what I want to tell you, Rita, I dont know what I want to teach you. What you already have is valuable. (Scene 1 Pg. 48). This shows Franks confusion towards Rita. Choices and consequences is another theme used in the play Educating Rita to show the transition of Frank and Rita coming into the world. Ritas motivation is to achieve a direction in which she wants her life to follow. Ritas main choice of an education is so she can make more certain choices. Frank is also having to make choices too.Rita decides for Frank that he is teaching her and that he is to return next week. Frank feels as though he has forced Rita into losing her touch with parts of herself which were unique and precious. Franks life is unsatisfying for him but unlike Rita he choses to do nothing astir(predicate) it. It is this choice he makes into him being sent to Australia at the end of the play. The use of symbols used in the visual text is used to demonstrate an understanding of the world around the two protagonists, Frank and Rita. The window is set behind the two characters but is significant as it is referred to a lot in the play.Rita always looking out of the window to the educated class of plenty sitting on the grass gives a certainty of her need to escape and to become educated. Frank however wont give up drinking. He always has an alcoholic drink with him this shows he has a problem. Although Rita uses the window to escape, Frank uses it as a deception. He does not want to change he is satisfied with how he is. Frank does not accept change from choices that have been made. Frank No youve found a different song, thats all- and on your lips its shrill and hollow and tuneless. (Act two. Pg. 9) This quote showing the audience that Frank still has not changed from his morbid character at the beginning of the play till now. The visual text reveals Rita as an enthusiastic student who wants an education to change her life and her past choices. The text also reveals Frank of his consequences. Frank not being able to stay change does not allow him to experience change throughout the transition of coming into the world, to his fullest potential. Into the world discusses change and experiences throughout ones life.. The play Educating Rita mostly supports this.

Database: Entity-relationship Model

Appendix A A pragmatic feed to Entity-Relationship simulation A matter-of-fact Guide to Entity-Relationship manikin Il-Yeol vocal music and Kristin Froehlich College of Information light and Technology Drexel University Philadelphia, PA 19104 Abstract The Entity-Relationship (ER) ideal and its accomp both(prenominal)(prenominal)ing ER plots ar widely utilise for selective informationbase normal and Systems analysis. M some(prenominal) books and articles just provide a exposition of to separately integrity poser comp integritynt and give examples of pre-built ER diagrams.Beginners in information personateing prep be a great deal of difficulty learning how to uprise a presumption chore, what questions to ask in articulate to manakin a pretending, what retrieves to drug abuse while constructing an ER diagram, and why single diagram is disclose than an other. In this paper, in that respectfore, we present step-by-step guidelines, a rotary of purp ose rules proven to be usable in building ER diagrams, and a eccentric person study chore with a preferred sacrifice as well up as a set of incorrect diagrams for the conundrum.Database caution System and DataThe guidelines and decision rules give way been successfully used in our lineage Database Management Systems course for the last eight-spot years. The oddball study give provide readers with a detailed shape up to the frameworking process and a deeper downstairsstanding of entropy modeling. Introduction Entity blood diagrams (ERD) atomic number 18 widely used in database design and systems abstract to dissemble systems or bother earths. The ERD was introduced by Chen (1976) in archaean 1976. Teorey, Yang, and Fry (1986) present an extended ER model for comparative database design.The ERD models a given problem in footing of its essential elements and the interactions amongst those elements in a problem domain. The ERD backside cause as the basis for databases, which stack away data ab bring out the problem domain, and which use, manipulate, and restrain that data. Experts in systems analysis and database design be adept at marking substance abuser requirements and indeed translating them into corresponding comp unitynts of the model. umpteen books and articles just provide a definition of some(prenominal)ly modeling parting and give examples of pre-built ER diagrams. Beginners in data modeling ware a great eal of difficulty learning how to approach a given problem, what questions to ask in point to build a model, what rules to use while constructing an ER diagram, and why champion diagram is better than a nonher. 213 Appendix A A matter-of-fact Guide to Entity-Relationship mannequin Ahrens and Song (1991) present a set of requirements elicitation template sentences, social structured incline template sentences, and almost decision rules for database modeling. This paper presents a set of heuristic rule rule s which improve upon those presented by Ahrens and Song (1991), together with a detailed case study analysis.We entangle step-by-step guidelines, a set of decision rules proven to be useful in building ER diagrams, and a case study problem with a preferred reaction as well as a set of incorrect diagrams for the problem. These guidelines and decision rules fool been successfully used in our beginning Database Management Systems course for the last eight years. The case study willing provide readers with a detailed approach to the modeling process and a deeper understanding of data modeling. The Entity-Relationship Diagram The entity kindred diagram is a graphical agency of a conceptual structure of a problem domain cosmos sculptured.The ERD assists the database designer in identifying the data and the rules that will be represented and used in a database. The ERD is an implementation-independent internal representation of a problem domain and it facilitates communication su rrounded by the end-user and the analyst. ERDs hatful be easily converted into a logical database structure that cease be readily implemented in a particular commercial database concern system. The basic comp mavennts of the ERD be entities, properties of entities called attri exclusivelyes, and family familys amid entities. Entities Entities be PRIMARY THINGS of a problem domain more than than or less which users necessitate to record data.Ross (1988) provides a list of campaigner entity typecasts which could be include in the model. (1) People humans who carry out some function Employees, Students, nodes (2) Places sites or locations Cities, Offices, Routes (3) Things tangible physical objects Equipment, Products, Buildings (4) Organizations Teams, providers, discussion sections (5) Events things that happen to some other entity at a given look and time or as in an ordered sequence Employee promotions, Project phases, rate feedments (6) Concepts nonphysical i deas used to keep pursue of business or other activities Projects, visors, Complaints 214 goAppendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship pattern These candi see entity types need to be evaluated against a particular domain be modeled. Some decision rules are discussed in a later section of this paper. Attributes Attributes are properties of entities or family kins. Entities have two types of properties identifying propertys and descriptive places. Identifying attributes whimsically determine several(prenominal)ly instance of an entity type. They are called entity identifiers or keys. For example, the attribute social security number would uniquely identify each member or instance of the entity type student.Descriptive attributes of student ability include year, advisor, and grade point average. Each instance of an entity has a pry for each attribute. Values for grade point average qualification include 2. 5, 3. 45, and 4. 0. Values for year might include 1991, 1 992, 1993, and 1994. Only attributes that are meaning(prenominal) in terms of modeling the problem under consideration are included in the ERD. For example, we would non include eye color in a student database. Relationships Relationships are other basic comp whizznt of the ERD. A race is an tie between or among things or entities.A family describes a meaningful interaction that needfully to be remembered by the system. The degree of a alliance steers how more a nonher(prenominal) entities are participating in the relationship. A single relationship describes an friendship of an entity with itself. A binary relationship, the most common instance, describes an association between two entities. A triplex (or n-ary ) relationship is an association between triad or more entities. The ER methods that intromit simply single and binary relationships are called binary models, while ER methods that allow any type of relationship are called n-ary models.For more thorough tre atment of ternary relationships, go through J nonpareils and Song (1995, 1996) and Song and Jones (1995). Cardinality and community Constraints Cardinality is a constraint on the relationship between two entities. Specifically, the waggleinality constraint expresses the maximal number of entities that can be associated with another entity via a relationship. For example, in a binary relationship (a relationship with two participating entities), we can have three attainable cardinalities oneto-one (11), one-to- many another(prenominal) (1N), or many-to-many (MN). unmatchable-to-one cardinality registers that, for entities guest and grudge, one client can have at most one describe and one account cannot be testify by more than one customer. wholeness-to-many cardinality ranks that one customer can have many accounts, but one account cannot be owned by more than one customer. Many-to-many cardinality says that one customer can have many accounts and one account whitethorn b e owned by many customers. 215 Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling involvement is too a relationship constraint.Participation expresses the minimum number of entities that can be associated with another entity via a relationship. There are two values for employment total or mandatory appointment and uncomplete or nonmandatory society. If either instance of an entity must participate in a given relationship consequently that entity has total confederacy in the relationship. But if every instance need not participate in a given relationship accordingly the elaborateness of that entity in the relationship is overtone. give the relationship employee deeds for epartment, an employee has incomplete participation in that relationship if he or she need not work for a part. An employee has total participation in the relationship if he or she must work for at to the lowest degree one department. Similarly, a department has partial participation in th e relationship if it can personify without having any employees. A department has total participation in the relationship if it must have at least one employee. Cardinality and participation constraints are business rules in the problem domain being modeled. These constraints represent the way one entity type is associated with another entity type.These constraints are as well integrity constraints because they help to ensure the true statement of the database. These constraints limit the ship canal in which data from distinct parts of the database can be associated. For example, lets say the cardinality of the relationship between Customer and grievance is one-to-one, as in write in code 1(a) below. If customer C1 is associated with account A3, thusly C1 cannot be associated with any other accounts and A3 cannot be associated with any other customers. 216 Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling (a) One to One (11)One customer can have at most one accou nt. One account cannot be owned by more than one customer. Customer 1 CA 1 account ER Diagram C1 C2 C3 A1 A2 A3 particular Diagram (b) One to Many (1n) One customer can have many accounts. One account cannot be owned by more than one customer. Customer 1 C1 C2 C3 CA n A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 Account ER Diagram Occurrence Diagram (c) Many to Many (nm) One customer can have many accounts. One account whitethorn be owned by many customers. Customer n C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 CA m A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 Account ER Diagram Occurrence Diagram work out 1.CARDINALITY The expression of the maximum number of entities that can be associated to another entity via a relationship. Occurrence Diagrams show the relationships between occurrences or instances of each entity. 217 Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Taxonomy in ER Modeling In an ER model, an entity is represented as a rectangle containing the name of the entity. The names of attributes are enclosed in an oval committed to the rect angle of the entity they describe. Attributes may be omitted from the diagram to avoid cluttering it and also in the early stages of development.Relationships are represented by ball fields between entities. The notation of the ERD, however, varies according to the modeling approach used. Binary models do not use the diamond to indicate a relationship, do not represent attributes of relationships, and do not allow ternary relationships, that is, relationships between three or more entities. Martin (1989), Bachman (1992), ERWin and IDEF1X (Bruce, 1992) use the binary modeling approach. Most text books use n-ary modeling, including Elmasri and Navathe (1994), Hawryszkiewycz (1991), Teorey (1994), Batini, Ceri and Navathe (1992), and McF hang onen and Hoffa (1994).A few notations are illustrated below. n Employee 1 part a) Chen Employee Department b) Teorey n Employee 1 Department c) Elmasri Navathe Employee (0,1) works_for is_worked_for Employee works_for Employee p works_for Employ ee c has (1,n) Department d) MERISE Employee Department e) IE Department f) Bachman Department g) IDEF1X Department h) Shlaer & Mellor skeletal system 2. Various notations for ER Diagram representing one employee works for zero or one department and one department has one or more employees. 218 Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship ModelingEach diagram in Figure 2 contains two entities employee and department. In diagrams a, b, c, and d, the diamond indicates the relationship between the entities. These diagrams use n-ary modeling. Diagrams e through h are examples of binary modeling. They do not represent the relationship with the diamond shape. Instead, diagrams e, f, and h label the line between the entities with the relationship name. Attributes were not represented in the diagrams for simplicity. The various circles, lines, arrows, and letters on the diagram indicate cardinality and participation constraints.For a more complete treatment of various ER modeling me thods, see Song, Evans, and Park (1995). ER Modeling How does one begin creating an entity relationship diagram? In this paper, we present step-by-step guidelines to build an ERD development n-ary modeling using Elmasri and Navathes notation (see 2. c). In hold over 1, we summarize a sequence of steps of database design using an ER model. noe that these steps are iterative. 1. run across the problem domain. Analyze database requirements. Write a compact specification in English, if not created yet. What do we need to enclose into the database? What queries and reports do we need to engender? What are Copernican people, places, physical things, organizations, events and abstract concepts in the organization? 2. inclination a conceptual schema by creating an ER diagram. (a) Identify entity types. invest a singular noun to each entity type. (b) Identify relationships between (among) entities. physical exertion a meaningful verb for a relationship name. (c) Draw an ERD witho ut attributes. (d) Identify relationship cardinalities. affair constraint (11, 1N, NM) Participation constraint (Total, Partial) (e) Assign attributes to entity types and relationship types.Usually attributes come from nouns, adjectives or adverbs. (f) portion out identifiers (primary keys) for entity types. Weak entity composite primary key. stiff entity choose/create a single attribute primary key. (g) Select the PKs of relationships. If 11, then the PK of either side entity type may be selected. If 1N, then the PK of N-side entity type must be selected. If MN, then a composite PK consisting of PKs of two entity types must be used. If ternary, then a composite PK consisting of the PKs of at least two entity types.The actual PKs selected will veer depending on the cardinality. 3. origination a logical schema. (a) Translate the ERD into a relational schema 219 Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling If a relationship cardinality is likely to be changed us e s slacken method. If a relationship cardinality is not likely to be changed use mapped method. If a relationship cardinality is not likely to be changed and null values of foreign keys are material use mapped with total/partial method. (b) Check normalization (at least 3NF). (c) Create data dictionaries. A schema table One table for each relation created in step (a) Assign a domain type for each attribute. Explain the meaning of attributes, if not intuitive. Note other values such as range, null, PK, FK, indexed, source, proprietor (d) Do database prototyping & modify the design if necessary. (e) Summarize the design assertion (integrity, security). 4. Verify the design with users. Iterate the steps, if necessary. Table 1. Steps to DB Design employ ER Modeling First, it is essential to study the problem domain at hand. Analyze database requirements.Write a summary paragraph for the problem domain, considering what data need to be stored and what queries and reports need to be processed. each the information necessary for the identified queries and reports must be included in the summary paragraph. Revise the summary paragraph considering database requirements. Second, from the summary paragraph, keep nouns. They are aspects for entity types. To determine whether a noun should be fixd as an entity, the succeeding(a) decision rules may be applied. Rule 1 Every entity type should be important in its own right within the problem domain.Rule 2 IF an object type (noun) has whole one property to store whence it is an attribute of another entity type ELSE it is an entity type. Rule 3 IF an object type has lonesome(prenominal) one data instance THEN do not model as an entity type. Rule 4 IF a relationship needs to have a unique identifier 220 Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling THEN model it as an entity type. The introductory three rules are used to evaluate object types or nouns, and the fourth rule is used to evaluate rela tionships or verbs. simulation 1 Address is commonly a property of another object type, like customer, vendor, or keep company.Its institution is less important and not meaningful in its own right within the problem domain. Address should be modeled as an attribute. Example 2 Suppose we are modeling the customers of a company and we penury to include the city where each customer resides. If the name of the city is its only attribute, then, make uping Rule 2, model city as an attribute not an entity. Similarly, consider the case of modeling employees and their departments. If the only important property of the department is its name, then Rule 2 tells us to model it as an attribute.However, if we need to store tackitional properties of each department such as projects or total sales, then we should consider modeling it as an entity. Example 3 Consider modeling the activities of a trucking company. Since there is only one instance of the trucking company, then, according to Rul e 3, it is not necessary to represent it in our model as an entity. We note that it is not wrong to model this single instance noun as an entity type. We simply do not model it as an entity type at the conceptual level because it does not add any modeling power.We need the fourth rule because one point can be stated in many different ways in English. In the fourth rule, distinguishing between entities and relationships depends on the function the component plays in the problem domain and how data will be stored closely it. Example 4 Consider the three statements customer orders products, customer hires bills, and lector reviews papers. Even though orders and pays bulge to represent relationships, we model them as entities since each instance would need a unique number for identification in real-world situations.Information would be stored in the database for each order and honorarium. Each review is not likely to need a unique identification number. Instead, we identify each r eview bodily process by a combination of Paper and lecturer. Thus, by Rule 4, we model reviews as a relationship type. once entities have been assigned, we proceed to identify relationship types between those entities. Verbs are useful candidates for relationships. The following question is useful for identifying relationships What sentences can be constructed of the form Entity Verb Entity? For example, 221Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Employee has children (Existence relationship) Professor teaches students (Functional relationship) Customer places order (Event relationship) Note that a relationship is not an action of a extend of data as in data flow diagrams. They are important interactions, between two or more entities, that need to be remembered by the system. In the higher up examples, we want to remember the facts that who is a child of which employee, which prof teaches which students, and which customer places which order. Also keep in mind that all relationships are bi-directional.We should be able to state the relationship in both directions. Expressing the relationships in a higher place in the opposite direction yields the following statements Children belong to employee Students are taught by professor Order is placed by customer After an ERD has been built, the following rule can aid in validating the diagram. Rule 5 IF any verb refers to nouns which are not selected as entity types THEN do not model it as a relationship type. If any verb in the ERD fails to follow Rule 5, then consider it again carefully before including it in the diagram.When entities and relationships have been identified, then the cardinality and participation constraints of the relationships can be analyzed. The following rules can help determine the cardinality and participation constraints for a given binary relationship. A B Rule 6 For each A, what is the maximum number of Bs that may be related to it? Rule 7 IF A can make up wi thout being associated with a B THEN A has partial (optional) participation ELSE A has total (mandatory) participation. 222 Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Example 5 Consider the relationship supplier Supplies Account.For each Supplier, what is the maximum number of Accounts that may be related to it? Lets say that in our problem domain, each Supplier may have many Accounts but each Account may have only one Supplier. By Rule 6, the cardinality constraint for SupplierAccount is 1N or one to many. Figure 1 illustrates the cardinality constraints. Example 6 In determining the participation constraint of Supplier Supplies Account, we follow Rule 7 If Supplier can be without being associated with Account, THEN Supplier has partial participation, ELSE Supplier has total participation.In our problem domain, Supplier may exist without being associated with Account. Therefore, Supplier has partial participation in the give relationship. However, since Account cannot exist without a Supplier Account has total participation in the tack relationship. Some basic naming conventions have been realised to maintain accuracy and consistency in the database and to avoid redundancy. All entity names should be unique. Use singular nouns in the diagram for both entity and attribute names. Use verbs in the present tense for relationship names. Verbs should be meaningful.For example, avoid verbs like is, has, and do whenever possible. Additionally, well-defined ERDs should satisfy the following basic rules All entities and relationships should be connected. All entity names should be unique. Each entity must have at least one relationship. A relationship cannot be directly connected to another relationship. Every entity must have at least one unique attribute, which serves to identify each instance of that entity. Case Study The following example will illustrate our guidelines for modeling requirements of the problem domain with entity-relation ship diagrams.Using the summary paragraph of the problem description below, we will progress through the steps set forth above. The nouns in the problem description bulge out in boldface and the verbs are italicized to aid in the following analysis. Summary Paragraph of Problem interpretation A database specialist wants to design a part of the database for a low-down drug store owner as follows The owner wants to keep track of all the suppliers who communicate anything to the store. For each supplier, the owner assigns a unique supplier number, and wants to keep the 223Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling company name, point of reference (number, street, city, state, zip), contact persons name, phone number, fax number, and a comment for each supplier. For each proviso activity, an account is established to keep track of the date incurred, the total cost of the activity, payable date for stipend, outstanding balance after(prenominal) some payment s, and any special comments related to the account. For each account, the owner may pay at several different times and in different ways (e. g. , cash, check, assurance card).For each payment activity, the owner wants to keep the date of payment, pith of payment, method of payment (check check number credit card credit card name, type, and number). Note that one supplier can supply many times and one payment can pay for several accounts of the like supplier. Entity Analysis After culture and understanding the problem statement, our startle step is to identify entities for the ERD. To do that we evidence the nouns in the problem statement. Nouns appear in boldface. We test each noun against our four criteria to determine whether or not it should be included as an entity type.Our first noun is owner. Recall that an entity type has more than one instance and more than one property. Since there is only one instance of owner, we do not model it as an entity type. Similarly, there i s only one store, so we need not represent store as an entity type. The adjoining noun, supplier, can be classified as an entity type. Several properties of supplier are listed in the problem statement. The statement also refers to more than one supplier. Therefore, according to Rules 1, 2, and 3, we model supplier as an entity.For each supplier, the owner wants to store the following properties in the database supplier number, company name, contact person, address, phone number, fax number, and comment. Each of these attributes except address has only one property to store so we model them as attributes. Address has its component properties number, city, state, and zip so one might be tempted to model it as an entity type. However, the fictional character of address as a property of supplier supersedes the fact that address has properties of its own. In other words, address itself without supplier is not important in its own right.Therefore, by Rule 1, we model address as an attr ibute. Account is the next noun. Account has several properties to be stored in the database date incurred, total cost, due date, account balance, and comments and we will store information about numerous accounts. Therefore, we designate account as an entity. Its properties are modeled as attributes of account. compensation is clear an entity, with multiple instances and various properties. The properties of payment date of payment, amount of payment, and method of payment, are modeled as its attributes.Cash, check, and credit card appear to be attributes of payment, but actually, they are not attributes themselves, but simply different values for the attribute method of payment. This distinction becomes clearer if we think about 224 Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling storing data in the database. For each payment, one of the values cash, check, or credit card will be stored in the location containing data about the method of payment. Check number and cr edit card name, type and number may be modeled as attributes of correctment. Supplier Account wages Figure 3. Entities to be included in the ERD.Relationship Analysis Our analysis of nouns in the problem statement has produced three entities Supplier, Account, and Payment (Figure 3). Keep these entities in mind as we identify relationships between them. Lets examine the verbs in the problem statement as candidates for relationships in the diagram. Verbs appear in italics. Of the verbs in the problem statement keep track, assigns, supply, established, and pay, only supply and pay are possible candidates for relationships between the entities account, supplier, and payment. Keep track and keep appear several times in the problem statement.These terms refer, not to a relationship between entities, but in general to storing data in the database. In other words, they are used to describe the problem domain, not an interaction that needs to be remembered by the system. Therefore, we do not model them as relationships. Established, in the statement an account is established, is an activity performed by the owner or the system itself. Similarly, owner assigns a unique supplier number reflects an activity by the owner. These two verbs do not represent relationships between any of our three entities. Thus, we are left with the verbs supply and pay.A supplier performs a supply activity. The result of a supply activity is an account. Therefore, a good candidate for the relationship between supplier and account is supply. Stated in both directions, the relationship is Supplier supplies account and account is supplied by supplier. Rule 4 states that if a relationship needs to have a unique identifier, then model it as an entity. Each supply activity is unique, so we may be tempted to model supply as an entity. However, the data for each activity is stored using the entity account, so it is not necessary to create another entity which stores the same information.Each paym ent credits an account so pay is the relationship between payment and account. Expressing the relationship pay in both directions, we can say account is paid by payment and payment pays account. 225 Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Now we can force the basic ERD (Figure 4). We include the entities Supplier, Account, and Payment, and the relationships ply and Pay. Attributes may be added to the diagram at this point or omitted to avoid clutter. Supplier Supply Account Pay Payment Figure 4. ERD without attributes and constraintsAnalysis of Cardinality and Participation Constraints In order to identify the cardinality and participation constraints of each relationship in the ERD, we follow Rules 6 and 7 expression at the relationship first from the point of view of one entity and then from the other entity. In our ERD above, to determine the cardinality constraint of the relationship Supply, we begin by asking, For each Supplier, what is the maximum numbe r of Accounts that may be created? From the problem statement, we bed that one supplier can supply many times and an account is established for each supply activity. forecasting the relationship in the other direction, we ask, What is the maximum number of Suppliers for which each Account may contain information? From the problem statement we can dupe that each account carries information for a single supplier, since accounts are established for individual supply activities. Thus, for each supplier, there may be many accounts and each account may have only one supplier. The relationship Supplier Supplies Account is a one-to-many relationship. The diagram is marked with a 1 on the side of the relationship Supply nearer to Supplier, and an N (for many) on the side nearer to Account (see Figure 5).To identify the cardinality of the relationship Payment Pays Account, we look at the relationship from both directions. We ask, What is the maximum number of Payments we can accept for ea ch Account? The answer is clearly stated in the problem statement For each account, the owner may pay at several different times and in different ways. From the opposite direction, For each Payment, what is the maximum number of Accounts for which it may pay? Again, we find the answer in the problem statement One payment can pay for several accounts of the same supplier. In sum, each account 226Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling may consume many payments and each payment may pay for many accounts. Therefore, the relationship Payment Pays Account is many-to-many. This time, we mark our diagram with an M on one side of the relationship Pay and an N on the other side. (Note that the use of M or N is completely arbitrary. ) We go through a similar process to determine the participation constraint of each relationship, tone at the relationship from each direction. For the Supply relationship we ask, Can a Supplier exist without generating Accounts? In the ot her direction, Can an Account exist without having Suppliers supply merchandise? The answers to these questions are not explicit in the problem statement. In a real world situation, the database designers would clarify questions like these with the owner. In this case, we will make assumptions from what we understand about the problem domain. Suppliers are generally fairly stable entities. A company maintains relationships with several regular suppliers heedless of whether they have outstanding accounts. On the other hand, an account is only created when a supplier supplies merchandise.Since suppliers can exist without having current accounts, Supplier has partial participation in the Supply relationship. Accounts, however, depend on suppliers for their existence. Thus, Account has total participation in the Supply relationship. To determine the participation of the entities Payment and Account in the Pay relationship, we ask, Can a Payment exist without paying for an Account ? a nd Can an Account exist without receiving Payments against it? A payment which pays for nothing is absurd. It cannot exist without an account. An account, however, may exist without receiving payments against it.Therefore, Payment has total participation and Account has partial participation in the relationship Pay. In representing the cardinality and participation constraints described above in our ERD, we will employ Elmasri and Navathes (1994) notation. If an entity has partial participation in the relationship, then a single line is drawn on the line between that entity and the relationship. A double line indicates total participation. The cardinality constraint is represented by Look Across convention, while participation constraint is represented by Look Here convention.Figure 5 illustrates the final ERD with cardinality and participation constraints. 227 Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling 1 Supplier Supply N Account M Pay N Payment Figure 5. ERD wit h cardinality and participation constraints. Errors in Modeling A common error that dilettante designers make is failing to recognize the boundaries of a problem domain. They fail to make a distinction between elements that comprise the content of the database and elements that are away(p) the scope of the database. For example, in the problem statement bove, a novice might want to model the verbs keep track or assigns or established as relationships (see Figure 6(a)). These verbs refer to implementing the database and not to its content. Keep track refers to storing data in the database, established refers to adding an instance of an entity to the database, and assigns refers to giving a value to an attribute of an entity. In deciding which elements to model, it is valuable to keep in mind the real world situation. Novice designers also frequently confuse entities with their attributes or properties, as in Figure 6(b).Occasionally, if properties are complex and play a significant role in the problem domain, then they may be modeled as entities. More often, however, properties of an entity should be modeled as attributes. In our problem statement, a novice user may decide to model address, a property of the entity supplier, as an entity. Modeling Address follows Rules 2 and 3 about identifying entities it has more than one property and it has more than one occurrence. However, address does not follow Rule1 in that it is not important in its own right.The role of address in the database is more accurate as an attribute of supplier, than as an entity with its own relationships. Other errors are modeling indirect or tautological relationships and inappropriately modeling object types as relationships rather than as entities. Given our problem statement, one may be tempted to model the relationship Payment Pays Supplier as in Figure 6(c) or Supplier Pays Account as in Figure 6(d) rather than Payment Pays Account. Figure 6(c) represents the association between p ayment and account indirectly. This indirect relationship can only exist after we have all the direct 228Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling relationships as in Figure 5. In this case, the indirect relationship simply becomes redundant. Without the direct relationships, the indirect relationship cannot be added, because it cannot explain how a particular payment is distributed to multiple accounts. Figure 6(d) represents the relationship Pay rather than the entity Payment. In either of these two cases, it is difficult to explicitly represent the fact that one payment can pay for several accounts of the same supplier. We can only tell implicitly by reading the check number for the various payments.If the payment is made in cash, there is no way to identify that it paid for more than one account. If the representation used in Figure 6(d) is used, then the attributes related to payments date of payment, amount of payment, and method of payment, are now attribut es of the relationship Pay. This representation can add unnecessary complexity to the model. Ordinarily, a relationship is uniquely represented by the identifiers of one or more of the entities which participate in it. If the relationship includes a time-dependent attribute like date of payment, then that attribute must also be included in the primary key for that relationship.Additionally, instances of date of payment and amount of payment will require redundant representation because they will have to be included for each account covered by a payment. Finally, in business practice, each payment activity commonly requires a unique identifier. Therefore, following Rule 4, it is more appropriate to model payment as an entity than as a relationship. As an entity, the representation is more straightforward and less likely to include redundant or faulty information. 229 Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling a) pickax of wrong verb as relationship Owner (b) Attr ibute as entity Supplier Located_at Address Keeps_track Payment (c) Indirect relationship Payment Pays Supplier Establishes Account (d) Payment as relationship instead of entity Establishes Supplier Pays Account Figure 6. Errors in ERD Modeling. Limitations of Guidelines and Rules Two limitations of our guidelines are that they dont account for incomplete requirements analysis or for ambiguity in the problem description. If the problem description is incomplete, then the resulting analysis based on this approach will also be incomplete.We assume that the analysis is complete. If the problem specification is modified, the analysis and resulting ERD should be modified as well. In English, one concept can be represented in many different ways. For example, we can say that customer orders products or customer places an order to buy products. Order is used 230 Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling as a verb in the first sentence and as a noun in the second. We mini mize this problem by adopting Rule 4, which states that if a verb needs to have a unique identifier, we model it as an entity type rather than a relationship type.Conclusion We have discussed a set of decision rules which are useful in building ERDs and have illustrated the application of these rules using a single example. ERD constructs discussed here include Entities, Relationships, Attributes, Cardinality constraints and Participation constraints. To simplify our discussion, we didnt include other constructs such as Weak Entity, third Relationship, and Generalization/ Specialization. Our rules are heuristics which we have found useful for most cases to build ERDs in the early stages of analysis.However, these rules may need some refinement in some problem domains and the rules should be adapted to the problem domain under consideration. References Ahrens, J. and Song, I. Y. (1991). EER Data Modeling Aids for Novice Database Designers. 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Binary Representation of Ternary Relationships in ER Conceptual Modeling, in 14th Intl Conf. on Object-Oriented and EntityRelationship Approach, December 12-15, 1995, Australia, pp. 216-225. (Object- 231 Appendix A A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Oriented and Entity-Relationship Approach, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer-Verlag, Vol. 1021). Jones, T. H. and Song, I. -Y. , (1996). Analysis of Binary/ternary Cardinality Combinations in Entity-Relationship Modeling, Data & Knowledge Engineering Vol 19, No. 1, pp. 39-64. Martin, J. (1989).Information Engineering Book II Planning and Analysis, Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice Hall. McFadden, F. , and Hoffa, J. (1994). advanced Database Management, 4th Ed. , Redwood City, CA Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc. Ross, R. G. (1988). Entity Modeling Techniques and Application, Database Research Group, Inc. Shaler, S. and Mellor, S. J. (1988). Object-Oriented Systems Analysis Modeling the World in Data, Englewood Cliffs, NJ Yourdon Press. Song, I-Y. , Evans, M. , and Park, E. K. (1995). A Comparative Analysis of EntityRelat ionship Diagrams, Journal of Computer and Software Engineering, Vol. , No. 4 (1995), pp. 427-459. Song, I. Y. and Jones, T. H. (1995). Ternary Relationship Decomposition Strategies Based on Binary annoyance Rules, in 11th Intl Conf. on Data Engineering, March 610, 1995, Taipei, Taiwan, pp. 485-492. Teorey, T. J. (1994). Database Modeling Design The Fundamental Principles, 2nd. ed. , Morgan Kauffman Publishers, Inc. Teorey, T. J. , Yang, D. , and Fry, J. P. , (1986). A Logical Design Methodology for Relational Databases Using the Extended Entity-Relationship Model. Computing Surveys, 1812, June, pp. 197-222. 232

Carribean Adventures

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